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SMITHSONIAN  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  KNOWLEDGE. 


RESEARCHES 


UPON  THE 


YENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE: 


WITH  AN  INVESTIGATION  OP  TUB  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 

OF  THE  ORGANS  CONCERNED.  ^^<7v,  'f'    'I  Hf  i 


S.  WEIR  MITCHELL,  M.D., 


lECTCEEK  ON  PUySIOLOGY  IN  TUE  PUILADELPHIA  MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION. 


[ACCEPTED    FOK    PUBLICATION,    JULY,    I860.] 


COMMISSION 

TO   WHICH   THIS   MEMOIR  HAS   BEEN   REFERRED. 


Feanelin  Bache,  M.  D., 
eobley  dunglison,  m.d. 


Joseph  Henky, 

Secretary  S.  T. 


COLLINS,    PRINTER, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


PREFACE. 


In  the  following  pages  are  set  forth  the  results  of  a  long  and  conscientious 
experimental  study  of  the  venom  of  the  Rattlesnake. 

During  a  large  part  of  two  years  I  have  given  to  this  work  almost  all  the  leisure 
which  could  be  spared  from  the  everyday  exactions  of  my  regular  professional 
duties.  » 

In  its  progress,  I  have  been  constantly  aided  and  encouraged  by  many  friends, 
principally  members  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  of  Philadelphia;  more 
especially  am  I  in  debt  to  my  fellow-members  of  the  Biological  Department  of  the 
Academy,  to  Prof.  Wm.  A.  Hammond,  and  to  Mr.  Vaux. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  without  the  aid  of  which 
I  should  have  been  unable  to  procure  the  serpents  which  were  essential  to  my 
purposes. 

The  historical  references  and  the  Bibliography  owe  much  to  the  manuscript  notes 
of  Prof.  John  Le  Conte,  which  were  collected  with  much  care  and  labor,  that  they 
might  be  used  in  a  research  which  he  at  one  time  contemplated.  Becoming  aware 
of  the  investigation  in  which  I  was  engaged,  he  most  liberally  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal this  collection  of  literary  materials. 

To  Drs.  Brinton  and  Kane  I  am  greatly  obliged  for  intelligent  assistance  in 
numerous  experimental  investigations,  for  which  their  ready  surgical  skill  so  well 
fitted  them,  and  I  am  also  in  debt  to  Messrs.  Cantrell  and  Picot,  for  like  aid,  which, 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  service,  was  not  always  free  from  danger.  My  thanks 
are  further  due  to  Drs.  La  Roche  and  Stille,  to  Dr.  Fisher,  the  librarian  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  and  to  Dr.  T.  H.  Bache,  the  librarian  of  the  College 
of  Physicians,  whose  assistance  in  consulting  its  extensive  collection  of  American 
journals  has  been  to  me  of  great  service. 

With  the  exception  of  the  microscopic  delineations,  the  plates  were  drawn  by 
Dr.  Packard,  from  my  recent  dissections,  and  owe  their  chief  merit  to  his  accurate 
pencil. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  pages  of  this  Essay,  rest  alone  upon  experi- 


iv  PREFACE. 

mental  evidence.  That  in  so  varied  and  so  difficult  a  research,  it  may  be  found 
that  I  have  sometimes  been  misled,  and  at  others  erred  in  the  interpretation  of 
facts,  is  no  doubt  to  be  anticipated.  I  began  this  work,  however,  without  precon- 
ceived views,  and  throughout  its  prosecution  I  have  endeavored  to  maintain  that 
condition  of  mind  which  is  wanted  in  experimentation,  and  that  love  of  truth 
which  is  the  parent  of  rational  inferences.' 

S.  WEIR  MITCHELL. 

1226  Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia. 


■*  The  reader  who  desires  further  information  in  regard  to  the  therapeutics  of  the  subject,  and  to 
the  relative  value  of  the  various  antidotes  still  in  repute,  is  referred  to  a  forthcoming  paper,  by  the 
author,  in  the  North  American  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  in  which  the  whole  subject  will  be  con- 
sidered from  a  purely  medical  point  of  view.  The  author  takes  this  occasion  to  mention  the  omission 
in  the  medical  portion  of  the  present  essay  of  the  composition  of  Bibrou's  antidote.  It  contains  five 
drachms  of  bromine,  four  grains  of  iodide  of  potassium,  and  two  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Preface 

List  of  Figures 


CHAPTER  I. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  HABITS  OF  THE  CROTALUS  WHEN  IN  CAPTIVITY. 

Inactivity  of  the  Crotalus 

Habit  of  fasting 

Mode  of  artificial  feeding 

Necessity  for  water 

Change  of  skin 

Influence  of  the  supply  of  water  upon  this  process 

Question  of  the  loss  of  fangs  at  this  period 

Supposed  power  of  fascination  . 

Odor  of  the  Rattlesnake 


CHAPTER  II. 


ANATOMY  OP  THE  VENOM  APPARATUS. 


Osteology  of  the  parts  concerned 
Myology  of  the  parts  concerned 
Position  of  the  venom  gland 
Weight  of  the  gland  as  compared  with 
Capsule  of  the  gland 
Its  suspensory  and  other  ligaments 
Receptacle  of  the  poison 
Microscopical  anatomy  of  the  gland 
Course  of  the  duct 
Sphincter  of  the  duct     . 
Structure  of  the  fang     . 
Development  of  the  fangs 
Succession  of  fangs 


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the  length  and  weight  of  the  snake 

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CHAPTER  III. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  MECHANISM  OF  THE  BITE  OF  THE  CROTALUS. 


Attitude  of  defence        .  .         '  . 

Forward  motion  of  the  body  in  striking 
Distance  at  which  the  snake  can  strike  . 
Elevation  of  the  fangs    . 


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TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


Entrance  of  the  fang  into  the  part  struck 

Mechanism  of  the  parts  concerned  in  the  injection  of  the  poison 

Withdrawal  of  the  fang  .... 

Observation  as  to  the  employment  of  one  or  both  fangs 

Divergence  of  the  fangs  when  used  in  biting 

Means  employed  to  restrain  the  wasteful  flow  of  the  venom 

Tenacity  of  life  on  the  part  of  the  Crotalus  (note) 

Circumstances  that  sometimes  lessen  or  destroy  the  danger  of  the  bite 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  VENOM. 

Amount  of  venom  in  the  ducts  .... 

Manipulation  (note)        ..... 

Capacity  of  gland  as  compared  to  length  and  weight  of  snake 

Color  of  the  venom  of  the  Piattlesnake 

Physical  characters  of  venom 

Consistency  of  venom     ..... 

Taste  and  smell  of  venom  .... 

Reaction  of  the  venom  .... 

Reaction  of  the  mucoijs  membrane  of  the  snake's  mouth 
Decomposition  of  the  venom      .... 

Crystals  formed  during  the  evaporation  of  diluted  venom 

Amorphous  deposit  from  venom 

Chemical  examination  of  Crotalus  venom 

Temperature  at  which  the  venom  coagulates 

Its  solubility      ...... 

Effect  of  chemical  reagents  on  the  venom 

Its  nitrogenous  character  .... 

Observations  as  to  the  presence  of  sulphocyanide  of  potassium  in  venom 
Qualitative  analysis  of  venom    .... 

Observations  as  to  the  power  of  venom  to  convert  stai'ch  into  grape  sugar 
Is  the  gland  tissue  poisonous      .... 

Analogy  of  the  venom  gland  to  the  parotid  gland 

Effect  of  various  temperatures  on  the  activity  of  venom 

Table  of  the  effect  of  various  temperatures  on  the  activity  of  venom 

Inflnence  of  certain  chemical  agents  on  the  activity  of  venom    . 


CHAPTER  V. 


TOXICOLOGY  OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  CROTALUS. 


Action  of  venom  on  plants 

Germination  of  seeds  in  venom 

Action  of  venom  on  animal  life 

Development  of  animalculse  in  decomposing  venom 

Action  of  venom  on  frogs 

Acute  poisoning  of  frogs 

Chronic  poisoning  of  frogs 

Action  of  the  dried  venom  of  the  Crotalus  on  frogs 

Effect  of  the  venom  upon  the  Crotalus  itself 

Relative  susceptibility  of  cold  and  warm-blooded  animals 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

TOXICOLOGICAL  ACTION  OF  THE  VENOM  UPON  WARM-BLOODED  ANIMALS. 

Action  of  the  venom  ou  birds    ....... 

Table  of  symptoms  and  lesions  in  seven  cases  of  pigeons  poisoned  by  Crotalus  venom 

Action  of  venom  on  rabbits 

Table  of  symptoms  in  eight  rabbits 

Table  of  lesions  in  the  same 

Effect  of  Crotalus  venom  on  dogs 

Cases  which  recovered   . 

Fatal  cases 


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CHAPTER  VII. 

ACTION  OP  VENOM  ON  THE  TISSUES  AND  FLUIDS. 

The  venom  harmless  when  taken  into  the  stomach 

Pulmonary  absorption  of  the  venom  in  pigeons  with  fatal  results 

The  wound         ..... 

Effect  of  the  venom  on  the  muscles 

Effect  of  the  venom  on  the  rigor  mortis 

Ultimate  effect  of  venom  on  muscles 

Effect  of  venom  on  the  heart 

Effect  of  venom  on  the  constant  arterial  pressure 

Action  of  venom  on  the  capillary  system 

Action  of  venom  on  the  intestinal  movements    . 

Action  of  venom  on  the  ciliary  movement 

Action  of  the  venom  on  the  nervous  system 

Direct  effect  of  venom  oh  nerve  trunks 

Action  of  the  venom  on  the  sensory  and  motor  nerves  and  upon  the  nerve  centr 

Effect  of  the  venom  upon  the  calorifacient  function 

Effect  of  venom  on  the  blood     . 

Effect  of  venom  on  the  blood  in  acute  poisoning 

Effect  of  venom  on  the  blood  in  chronic  poisoning 

Table  of  blood  changes 

Loss  of  fibrin  in  chronic  poisoning 

Influence  on  the  blood-corpuscles 

The  rate  at  which  the  fibrin  disappears  from  the  blood 

Conclusions        ..... 

Altered  relation  between  the  blood  and  tissues  . 
Cause  of  death  .... 

Conclusions        .  .  .  .... 

Analogy  between  the  symptoms  of  Crotalus  poisoning  and  those  of  certain  diseases 


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CHAPTER  VIIL 

CEOTALUS  POISONING  IN  MAN, 


Table  of  Crotalus  poisoning  in  man 
Sex  of  those  bitten 
Situation  of  the  wound 


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TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


Local  symptoms  .... 

Local  results      ..... 
Constitutional  symptoms 
Fatal  cases,  mode  of  death 
Duration  of  cases  .... 

Rapidity  of  recovery  in  the  favorable  cases 
Lesions  in  fatal  cases     .... 
Antidotes  ..... 

^  General  remarks  on  antidotes     . 
Local  therapeutics  ^      . 
Internal  treatment 

Examination  of  supposed  constitutional  antidotes 
Ammonia  ..... 

Olive  oil  ..... 

Arsenic  ..... 

Bibron's  antidote  .... 

Alcoholic  stimulus  .  .  .  . 

Conclusion         .  .  .  ; 


An  enumeration  op  the  genera  and  species  of  Rattlesnakes,  with  synonymy  and  reeer- 
ENCES.     By  E.  D.  Cope      ........ 


Bibliography 


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LIST   OF  WOOD-CUTS. 


Figure    1.  Portion  of  craniam  of  Crotalus     ..... 

Figure    2.  Diagram  of  the  bony  parts  concerned  in  raising  the  fang  . 

Figure    3.  Palatal  view  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  jaw  and  base  of  the  skull' 

Figure    4.  Side  view  of  the  right  temporal  muscles  and  venom  gland 

Figure    5.  Side  view  of  the  left  temporal  muscles,  gland,  duct,  and  fang 

Figure    6.  A.  The  gland  and  temporal  muscles  seen  from  above.     £.  Diagram  of  duct  and 
gland — side  view      ...... 

Figure    T.  Microscopical  structure  of  the  venom  gland 

Figure    8.  Epithelial  cells  of  the  main  duct  and  receptacle  at  the  base  of  the  gland 

Figure    9.  Non-striated  muscular  fibre-cells  of  the  sphincter  of  the  duct 

Figure  10.  Diagram  illustrating  the  succession  of  the  fangs     . 

Figure  11.  Crystals  deposited  from  the  diluted  venom  of  the  0.  confiuentus  (Prof.  Hammond) 

Figure  12.  Appearance  of  muscular  fibre  after  contact  with  venom     .  .  .  . 


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'  In  Fig.  3,  p.  9,  Description — d  is  described  as  tlie  spheno-palatine  muscle.     It  should  be  labelled,  Central 
raphe  at  the  base  of  the  sliuU. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Popular  tradition  has  long  nourislied  a  general  aversion  to  serpents.  This 
dread,  fostered  by  the  singular  qualities  of  the  snake  tribe,  has  become  so  familiar 
an  idea  to  most  minds,  as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  it  is  of  instinctive  origin,  and 
not  sown,  as  it  surely  is,  by  the  hand  of  traditional  prejudice. 

However  produced,  dread  and  disgust  seem  to  have  had  some  influence  in 
preventing  physicians  in  this  country  from  investigating  the  venom  of  the  species 
of  serpents,  whose  strange  peculiarities  and  fatal  powers  have  most  urged  them 
upon  their  notice.  It  has  thus  happened,  that  with  the  exception  of  the  Essays 
of  Barton  and  Brainard,  the  cis-Atlantic  literature  of  this  subject  has  been  confined 
to  scattered  notices  and  incomplete  statements  of  cases,  to  be  found  with  difficulty 
in  the  pages  of  our  numerous  medical  journals. 

Apart  from  the  European  and  East  Indian  publications  upon  snake-bites,  we 
know  or  have  learned  but  little  that  is  new;  and  if  we  except  the  works  of 
Fontana,  Mangili,  Bonaparte,  and  one  or  two  others,  in  no  part  of  the  world  has 
modern  science  done  much  to  further  this  inquiry. 

Such  being  the  case,  I  conceive  that  no  excuse  is  required  in  presenting  the 
results  of  investigations  upon  a  subject  which  has  peculiar  claims  on  the  attention 
of  our  countrymen. 

A  large  part  of  what  is  here  set  forth  has  some  pretension  to  be  regarded  as 
original  research ;  but  the  subject  is  so  ample,  and  has  presented  itself  under  so 
many  points  of  view,  that  I  can  scarcely  regard  this  paper  as  more  than  a  re-opening 
of  the  matter;  and  I  feel  that  however  full  it  may  be  upon  some  points,  it  is  rather 
the  pledge  of  future  labors  than  a  complete  exposition  of  the  subject  upon  which 
it  treats.  For  the  researches  which  form  the  novel  part  of  the  following  essay,  I 
claim  only  exactness  of  detail  and  honesty  of  statement.  Where  the  results  have 
appeared  to  me  inconclusive,  and  where  further  experimental  questioning  has  not 
resolved  the  doubt,  I  have  fairly  confessed  my  inability  to  settle  the  matter.  This 
course  I  have  adhered  to  in  every  such  instance,  thinking  it  better  to  state  the 
known  uncertainty  thus  created  than  to  run  the  risk  of  strewing  my  path  with 
errors  in  the  garb  of  seeming  truths. 

In  the  following  researches  I  have  made  use  almost  altogether  of  the  single 
1 


INTRODUCTION. 


species  of  Rattlesnake,  usually  known  as  the  Grotalus  durissus.  Of  this  I  have 
had  living  specimens  from  Lake  George,  and  from  various  localities  in  the  Alle- 
ghanies  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  In  Mr.  Cope's  Summary  at  the  end  of  this 
Essay,  the  reader  will  find  all  the  necessary  details  as  to  the  zoological  characters 
of  this  serpent. 


CHAPTEK    I. 

OBSERVATIONS   ON    THE    HABITS   OF   THE    CROTALUS  WHEN   IN 

CAPTIVITY. 

During  a  large  part  of  two  years,  the  period  which  this  research  has  occupied, 
I  was  a  portion  of  each  day  in  the  room  where  the  reptiles  were  kept,  and  conse- 
quently observed  with  care  such  of  their  habits  as  could  be  studied  while  they 
were  in  confinement.  In  regard  to  these  I  have  a  few  observations  to  make, 
before  considering  their  physiology  and  toxicology. 

It  is  by  no  means  my  intention  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  habits  of  the 
Crotalus,  since  this  would  involve  a  great  deal  of  detail  which  is  to  be  found  else- 
where, and  which  would  be  foreign  to  the  general  purpose  of  this  essay. 

The  Rattlesnake  of  our  Northern  States,  when  at  liberty,  sometimes  lives  in 
the  company  of  his  fellows,  but  more  frequently  alone.  I  have  had,  in  a  single 
box,  from  ten  to  thirty-five  snakes,  and  have  never  observed  the  slightest  signs  of 
hostility  towards  one  another.  Even  when  several  snakes  were  suddenly  dropped 
upon  their  fellows,  no  attempt  was  made  to  annoy  the  new-comers,  while  the  sudden 
intrusion  of  a  pigeon  or  a  rabbit  was  met  with  ready  resentment,  whenever  the 
snakes  were  fresh  and  in  vigorous  health. 

The  habits  of  Rattlesnakes,  when  in  confinement,  are  singularly  inactive.  Even 
in  warm  weather,  when  they  are  least  sluggish,  they  will  lie  for  days  together  in  a 
knotted  mass,  occasionally  changing  their  position,  and  then  relapsing  into  perfect 
rest.  The  contrast  between  this  ordinary  state  of  repose,  or  sluggish  movement, 
and  the  perilous  rapidity  of  their  motion  when  striking,  is  most  dangerously  decep- 
tive. In  contrast  also  with  their  slow  locomotion  is  the  marvellously  rapid  action 
of  their  rattles,  which,  when  annoyed  or  molested,  they  will  sometimes  continue 
to  agitate  for  hours  at  a  time. 

It  is  the  general  experience  of  those  who  have  kept  rattlesnakes,  that  they 
seldom  eat  in  captivity.  I  have  known  a  snake  to  exist  for  a  year  without  food, 
and  although  I  have  made  every  effort  to  tempt  my  own  snakes,  I  have  never 
seen  any  one  of  them  disposed  to  avail  itself  of  food,  when  placed  within  its 
reach.  Dumeril  states  that  this  is  the  usual  experience  in  the  Garden  of  Plants, 
but  that  at  the  end  of  six  or  eight  months  they  commonly  accept  food.  He  also 
adds  that  the  very  young  pigeon  is  the  food  they  are  most  inclined  to  eat. 

After  tempting  the  snakes  with  this,  as  well  as  with  birds,  mice,  rabbits,  etc., 
and  finding  the  food  as  often  untouched,  I  finally  gave  up  the  attempt,  and  con- 
tented myself  with  feeding,  by  force,  such  of  them  as  seemed  feeble  and  badly 
nourished.  For  this  purpose,  I  used  milk  and  insects,  which  I  placed  in  their 
throats,  while  they  were  properly  pinioned.  To  effect  this,  the  snake  was  secured, 
and  the  lower  jaw  held  in  the  grasp  of  a  pair  of  forceps,  while  a  funnel,  with  a 


4  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

long  stem,  was  thrust  down  the  oesophagus.  Into  this,  insects,  such  as  flies  and 
grasshoppers,  were  pushed,  or  milk  poured  in  proper  quantity.  Yet,  even  when 
this  precaution  of  forcible  feeding  was  not  employed,  the  snakes  remained  healthy, 
and  secreted,  as  usual,  a  sufficient  amount  of  venom. 

To  preserve  them,  however,  in  good  condition,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
they  should  be  frequently  supplied  with  water,  especially  in  hot  weather,  and  when 
they  are  about  to  shed  their  skins.  The  free  snake  is  said,  in  this  climate,  to  shed 
its  cuticle  in  the  month  of  August.  My  snakes  lost  their  old  integuments  at 
different  periods,  during  the  summer.  In  all  cases,  the  old  skin  became  very 
dark,  as  the  new  one  formed  beneath  it.  If,  at  this  time,  the  snakes  were  denied 
access  to  water,  the  skin  came  off"  in  patches.  Where  water  was  freely  supplied, 
they  entered  it  eagerly  at  this  period,  and  not  only  drank  of  it,  but  lay  in  it  for 
hours  together.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  skin  was  shed  entire — the  first 
gap  occurring  at  the  mouth,  or  near  it.  Through  this  opening,  the  serpent  worked 
its  way,  and  the  skin  reverting,  was  turned  inside  out,  as  it  crawled  forth  in  its 
new  and  distinctly-marked  outer  covering.  When  the  old  skin  was  very  loose,  the 
snake's  motions  were  often  awkward  for  a  time.  It  is  said  to  be  blind  during  this 
period,  which  is  probably  true  to  some  extent ;  since  the  outer  layer  of  the  cornea 
is  shed  with  the  skin,  and  there  must  obviously  be  a  time  when  the  old  corneal 
layer  lies  upon  the  new  formation.  It  is  also  said  that  the  fangs  are  lost  at  the 
same  time  as  the  skin.  In  some  instances,  this  was  observed  to  be  the  case;  but 
whether  or  not  it  is  a  constant  occurrence,  I  am  unable  to  say  from  personal 
observation. 

It  is  most  probable,  as  I  have  elsewhere  stated,  that  not  only  are  the  fangs  shed 
when  the  skin  is  lost,  in  summer,  but  that  their  loss  is  a  frequent  occurrence,  like 
the  loss  of  teeth  in  certain  fish,  and  takes  place  at  intervals,  more  or  less  frequent, 
certainly  oftener  than  once  a  year. 

A  general  opinion  prevails  that,  immediately  after  the  loss  of  the  skin,  the 
snakes  become  most  virulent.  As  they  are  slothful  during  the  period  of  change, 
and  strike  then  with  reluctance,  if  at  all,  and  as  the  loss  of  the  fang  involves,  to 
some  extent,  the  accumulation  of  poison  in  the  gland  cavities,  this  view  may  be 
correct.  There  is  no  ground,  however,  for  supposing  that  the  effect  of  this  storing 
up  of  the  venom  would  be  greater  at  this  period  than  after  a  similar  amount  of 
accumulation  at  another  time. 

After  such  numerous  and  long-continued  opportunities  of  observation,  it  might 
be  supposed  that  I  should  be  prepared  to  speak  authoritatively,  as  to  the  still 
disputed  power  of  the  snake  to  fascinate  small  animals.  If  the  power  exist  at  all, 
it  is  probable  that  it  would  only  be  made  use  of  when  the  serpent  required  its  aid 
to  secure  food.  We  have  seen  that  even  the  most  healthy  snakes  lose  their  appe- 
tite when  imprisoned,  and  beyond  this  condition,  my  chances  of  observation  have 
been  limited.  Those  who  are  still  curious  in  the  matter  will  find  the  fullest  account 
of  it  in  the  Essay  of  Dr.  B.  S.  Barton.  In  despite  of  the  learned  and  ingenious 
argument  of  this  author,  there  are  not  wanting  large  numbers,  who  claim  to  have 
witnessed,  again  and  again,  the  exercise  of  the  power  of  charming  on  the  part  of  the 
Kattlesnake  and  Black  Snake.     Dr.  Barton,  who  does  not  deny  that  the  appearance 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  5 

of  fascination  lias  been  often  observed,  explains  it  by  supposing  that  in  these  cases 
the  pai'ent  bird,  alarmed  at  the  near  approach  of  danger  to  her  nest  of  young, 
hovers  anxiously  about  the  snake,  as  she  would  about  any  other  cause  of  danger, 
and  thus  sometimes  falls  a  victim  to  her  maternal  anxiety.  This  theory,  Dr. 
Barton  believes  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fluttering  and  strange  movements  of 
the  bird,  and  the  arguments  with  which  this  view  is  upheld,  are  certainly  entitled 
to  great  respect.  While  the  anxiety  and  terror  of  the  parent  bird  would  readily 
attract  notice,  the  real  object  of  the  snake,  and  the  true  cause  of  the  mother's 
approach  to  the  very  jaws  of  destruction,  would  be  more  than  likely  to  escape  the 
notice  of  such  persons  as  are  usually  called  upon  to  observe  the  supposed  fact. 

I  have  seen  but  one  occurrence  that  might  mislead  as  to  the  subject  of  fascina- 
tion. I  have  very  often  put  animals,  such  as  birds,  pigeons,  guinea-pigs,  mice,  and 
dogs,  into  the  cage  with  a  Kattlesnake.  They  commonly  exhibited  no  terror  after 
their  recovery  from  alarm,  at  being  handled  and  dropped  into  a  box.  The  smaller 
birds  were  usually  some  time  in  becoming  composed,  and  fluttered  about  in  the 
large  cage  until  they  were  fatigued,  when  they  soon  became  amusingly  familiar 
with  the  snakes,  and  were  seldom  molested,  even  when  caged  with  six  or  eight 
large  Crotcdi.  The  mice — which  were  similarly  situated — lived  on  terms  of  easy 
intimacy  with  the  snakes,  sitting  on  their  heads,  moving  round  on  their  gliding 
coils,  undisturbed,  and  unconscious  of  danger.  Larger  animals  were  not  so  safe, 
especially  if  they  moved  abruptly  and  rapidly  about  the  snakes.  The  birds,  mice, 
and  larger  animals,  often  manifested  an  evident  curiosity,  which  prompted  them  to 
approach  the  snake  cautiously.  Sometimes  this  was  rewarded  by  a  blow,  as  was 
sure  to  be  the  case,  when  a  dog  indulged  his  inquisitiveness  by  smelling  the  snake 
with  his  muzzle.  Sometimes  the  snake  retreated,  and  struck  only  when  driven  to 
bay.  Usually,  the  smaller  animals  indulged  their  inquisitive  instinct  unliurt,  and 
were  allowed  to  live  for  days  in  the  same  cage  with  the  dreaded  reptiles.^ 

These  are  the  sole  facts  which  I  have  seen,  bearing  any  relation  to  the  supposed 
fascinating  faculty.  They  appear  to  me  to  lend  no  strength  to  the  idea  of  its 
existence. 

There  is  a  popular  belief  which  ascribes  to  the  Rattlesnake  a  most  disagreeable 
odor,  and  even  naturalists  have  been  led  to  believe  that  the  serpent  owed  to  this  its 
power  to  lure  and  stupefy  animals.  In  this  matter,  I  agree  with  Barton."  I  have 
never  perceived  that  any  peculiar  odor  issued  from  my  snake-box,  and  as  to  its 
ability  to  injure  birds,  the  facts  above  stated  should  suffice  to  disprove  it.  As 
usual,  however,  this  pound  of  error  contains  its  grain  of  truth.  When  a  Eattle- 
snake  is  roughly  handled,  especiall3'  about  the  lower  half  of  its  length,  a  very  heavy 
and  decided  animal  odor  is  left  upon  the  hands  of  the  observer.  If  the  snake  be  vio- 
lently treated,  causing  it  to  throw  itself  into  abrupt  contortions,  thin  streams  of  a 
yellow  or  dark  brown  fluid  are  ejected  to  the  distance  of  two  or  three  feet.  This 
fluid  appears  to  come  from  glands  alongside  of  the  cloaca.  Its  odor  is  extremely  dis- 
agreeable, and  it  is  irritant  when  it  enters  the  eye,  although  not  otherwise  injurious. 


^  It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  curiosity  thus  exhibited  by  animals,  and  especially  by  mice  and  dogs,  was 
as  active  when  the  snake  was  not  regarding  the  intruder,  as  at  other  times. 
-  Barton,  p.  24. 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    TOXICOLOGY 


CHAPTER    II. 
ANATOMY   OF   THE   VENOM   APPARATUS. 

The  subject  of  the  myology  of  the  Eattlesnake  has  been  considered  at  length, 
in  several  systematic  works,  and  in  the  monographs  referred  to  at  the  close  of  this 
paper.  For  the  fullest  details,  it  would  be  necessary  to  refer  the  reader  to  the 
books  in  question.  Since,  however,  it  is  impossible  otherwise  to  convey  an  accu- 
rate idea  of  the  mode  in  which  the  fangs  are  employed,  I  am  forced  to  describe  the 
parts  concerned,  and  the  general  mechanism  of  their  motions.  It  is  the  more 
necessary  to  dwell,  at  least,  briefly,  on  this  matter,  because  some  of  the  French 
observers  have  fallen  into  error,  as  regards  the  action  of  certain  of  the  muscles 
concerned  in  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  fangs. 

I  shall  first  describe,  as  shortly  as  possible,  the  bones  involved ;  then  the  muscles, 
and  lastly  the  gland  and  its  duct.  Thus  prepared,  we  shall  next  study  the  mode 
in  which  the  blow  is  given,  and  the  mechanism,  through  the  agency  of  which  the 
poison  is  ejaculated. 

The  heads  of  the  true  serpents  are  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  a  large  amount 
of  movement  in  •  the  component  bones.  Thus  the  zygomatic  bones  which  support 
the  lower  maxillary  bones,  are  loosely  articulated  to  the  mastoid  bone,  which  is 
itself  so  mobile  as  to  permit  of  the  greatest  possible  expansion  of  the  throat. 
Anteriorly  the  superior  maxillary  bones  are  united,  by  ligaments  only,  to  the  inter- 
maxillaries,  and  the  lower- maxillary  bones  of  each  side  are  also  so  connected  ante- 
riorly as  to  permit  of  their  being  widely  separated,  and  of  one  or  the  other  side  of 
the  inferior  jaw  being  drawn  down  to  some  distance,  without  involving  a  corre- 
sponding motion  on  the  part  of  its  fellow.  Finally,  the  superior  maxillary  bones, 
the  pterygoid  and  palate  bones  admit  of  considerable  movement,  so  that  the 
arches  which  they  form  can  be  widened  or  narrowed  as  circumstances  may  require. 
The  mobility  of  these  parts  is  essential  to  the  motions  which  raise  and  depress 
the  fang,  and  to  the  deglutition  of  the  large  animals  upon  which  the  snakes  are 
accustomed  to  prey. 

The  poison  fang,  when  at  rest,  projects  downwards  and  backwards  into  the 
mouth  of  the  serpent.  It  is  firmly  anchylosed  in  the  alveolar  process,  which 
crowns  the  summit  of  the  shortened  upper  maxillary  bone.  Fig.  1,  d,  whose  pecu- 
liar brevity  is  characteristic  of  venomous  snakes.  The  superior  maxillary  bone  is 
of  a  rather  irregular  triangular  shape,  abruptly  cut  ofi:'  below  to  form  the  alveolar 
socket.     One  face  of  this  bone  is  smooth,  and  looks  inwards  and  slightly  forwards. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  7 

A  second  looks  forwards  and  outwards.     This  facet  is  smooth  below/  but  is  exca- 
vated above  into  a  deep  fossa,  which  in  the  fresh  snake  is  partially  closed  by 

Fio;.  1. 


Portion  of  CKANinii  of  Ckotalus. — Right  side.  Osteology.  Bones  concerned  in  tlie  movements  of  the  fang,  a, 
external  pterygoid  bone ;  b,  internal  pterygoid  bone  ;  c,  palatal  bone ;  d,  superior  maxillary  bone ;  e,  lachrymal 
bone. 

soft  tissues,  but  is  still  sufficiently  remarkable  as  lying  between  the  eye  and  nares. 
In  the  dry  bone  this  large  fossa  opens  upwards  freely  through  the  base  of  the  bone, 
and  thus  separates  the  two  surfaces  by  which  the  bone  articulates  with  the  ecto- 
pterygoid  and  lachrymal  bones  respectively.  Anteriorly,  the  superior  maxillar'y 
bone  presents  a  rounded  angle,  from  which  diverge  the  two  lateral  sides  just 
described.  Posteriorly,  the  superior  maxillary  exhibits  a  third  face,  which  is  flat 
only  half  way  down  the  bone,  and  terminates  in  an  abrupt  edge  forming  the  poste- 
rior boundary  of  the  alveolar  socket. 

Anteriorly,  and  above,  the  maxillary  bone  articulates  by  a  ginglymoid  joint  with 
the  short  triangular  lachrymal  bone.  Fig.  1,  e,  which  projects  forwards  from  the 
anterior  external  angle  of  the  frontal  bone.  The  articular  facet  of  the  maxilla  lies 
at  the  upper  end  of  its  front  angle.  It  moves  with  great  freedom  on  the  concave 
face  of  the  lachrymal  bone,  its  motion  being  partially  restrained  by  a  short,  round, 
strong  ligament,  which  runs  from  the  posterior  and  inner  edge  of  the  lachrymal 
bone  to  be  inserted  on  the  back  edge  of  the  base  of  the  maxilla,  just  above  the 
articulation  of  the  ecto-pterygoid  bone. 

The  lachrymal  bone  has  itself  some  movement  on  its  frontal  articulation,  and  by 
this  the  maxilla  obtains  indirectly  an  additional  extent  of  forward  motion.  At  the 
upper  edge  of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  maxillary  bone,  it  receives  the  expanded 
and  flattened  end  of  the  ecto-pterygoid  bone,  Fig.  1,  a.  Upon  tracing  .the  line  of 
motion,  of  which  this  bone  is  capable,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  lies  below  the  lachrymal 
joint,  and  that,  consequently,  when  it  moves  forwards,  the  fang  must  rise,  as  the 
superior  maxillary  rocks  on  the  articulating  face  of  the  lachrymal  bone. 

The  superior  maxillary  is  indirectly  attached  to  the  palate  bone.  Fig.  1,  c,  and 
internal  pterygoid,  Fig.  1,  h,  by  virtue  of  the  strong  connection  of  these  bones  with 
the  ecto-pterygoid.     This  connection  is  so  close  that  every  free  motion  of  either  of 


'■  The  parts  are  described  as  though  in  situ. 


8  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

the  two  former  bones  must  inevitably  affect  the  hitter,  and  through  it  again  the 
maxilla  and  its  single  tooth.^ 

The  motion  of  the  maxillary  bone  on  its  lachrymal  articulation  will,  perhaps, 
be  better  undex'stood  upon  reference  to  the  accompanying  diagram  of  the  parts. 


Diagram  of  the  Bony  Parts  concerned  in  raising  the  Fang. — a,  pterygoid  bone ;  /,  m.,  arrow  marking  its  line  of 
motion ;  p,  e,  pterygoideus  esternns  muscle ;  </,  frontal  bone ;  d,  lachrymal  bone  ;  c,  superior  inasillary  bone ; 
b,  fang. 

The  myology  of  the  subject  is  more  complicated ;  yet  even  here  our  purpose  will 
still  be  answered,  if  we  describe  only  the  muscles  concerned,  begging  the  reader  to 
remember  that  all  further  details  would  be  misplaced  and  useless.  On  reference 
to  Fig.  3,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  spheno-pterygoid,  a,  a  strong  muscle,  arises  along 
the  raphe  at  the  base  of  the  cranium,  and  running  backwards  and  outwards,  is 
inserted  fan-like  upon  the  pterygoid  plate.  Acting  from  the  fixed  base  of  the 
skull  upon  the  movable  pterj'goid  bone,  it  must  draw  this  bone  forward,  and, 
rocking  the  superior  maxillary  on  its  lachrymal  joint,  erect  the  fang.  Fig.  2,  I — m 
and  arrow. 

A  second  large  muscle,  the  pterygoideus  externus.  Fig.  3,  h,  arises  from  the  tough 
aponeurosis  covering  the  zygomatico-mandibular  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
as  it  runs  forward  below  the  poison  gland  and  to  its  inner  side  sends  a  strong 
layer  of  white  fascial  tissue  out  upon  the  capsule  of  the  gland.  Some  of  its  lower 
fibres  are  finally  inserted  directly  into  the  two  lips  or  edges  of  the  mucous  sheath 
of  the  tooth  fang.  A  larger  part  of  the  muscle  is  inserted  tendinously  into  an 
apophysis  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone  exteriorly  to  the  articulation  of  that  bone 
with  the  external  pterj^goid,  and  a  little  below  it.  The  mechanical  necessities 
arising  from  the  position  of  this  muscle  are  easily  seen;  for  when  the  external 
pterygoid  acts,  it  will  necessarily  depress  the  fang.  This  movement  will  be  more 
readily  comprehended  on  reference  again  to  the  diagram,  Fig.  2,  in  the  text,  where 
]) — e  marks  the  line  of  action  of  the  force  applied  by  the  pterygoid  muscle  to  the 
superior  maxillary  bone  and  to  the  edges  of  the  vagina  dentis,  the  sheath  of  the 
fang.  The  action  of  this  muscle  is  probably  aided  by  the  spheno-palatine,  which 
arises  along  the  raphe  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  above  the  spheno-pterygoid  and 
thus  nearer  the  skull,   and  running  diagonally  outwards    and  backwards   finds 


•  These  bones  rest  posteriorly  against  the  articulation  of  the  mandibulee  of  the  lower  jaw  with  the 
zygoma ;  they  consequently  share,  to  some  extent,  in  the  movements  of  this  joint. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  9 

insertion  along  the  inside  of  the  palatal  bone.     As  its  fibres  cross  those  of  the 
spheno-pterygoid,  its  action  antagonizes  that  muscle  and  aids  the  purpose  of  the 

Fio-.  3 


Myoiogt. — Palatal  view  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  jaw  and  base  of  the  skull,  a,  spheno-pterygoid  muscle — the 
elevation  of  the  fang  is  caused  by  its  action  on  the  pterygoid  and  palate  bones  ;  b,  external  pterygoid  muscle — the 
retractor  of  the  fang — inserted  into  the  outside  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone  ;  c,  fascial  sheath  of  this  muscle 
attached  to  the  capsule  of  the  venom  gland ;  d,  spheno-palatine  muscle. 

pterygoideus  externus.  The  connection  of  the  palate  bone  and  the  pterygoid  bones, 
wliicli  we  have  already  noticed,  is  essential  to  this  result. 

Almost  all  of  the  muscles  about  the  head,  neck,  and  jaws  of  the  serpent,  take 
part  either  in  the  motions  which  precede  the  blow,  or  those  which  inflict  and  follow  it. 
Most  of  these  muscles  have  functions  which  are  obvious  and  easily  demonstrable ; 
and  we  shall,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  the  briefest  reference  to  all  but  the 
anterior  temporal,  which  plays  a  far  more  important  part,  and  requires  a  fuller 
description. 

The  mouth  is  opened  by  muscles,  such  as  the  costo-mandibular  and  the  vertebro- 
mandibular,  with  the  help  of  a  muscular  layer  analogous  to  the  platysma  myoides. 
The  articulation  of  the  jaws  is  fixed  by  the  double  action  of  the  digastricus  and 
cervical  angular  muscles. 

Of  the  temporal  muscles  there  are  three.  The  anterior  temporal,  Fig.  4,  a, 
functionally  the  most  important,  arises  from  behind  the  orbit  and  from  the  upper 

Fiff.  4. 


Exhibiting  the  Relation  of  the  Tempokal  Mdscles  to  the  Vejjom  Gland,     a — a,  anterior  temporal  muscle  ;  6,  its 
insertion  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  c,  venom  gland  ;  d,  the  fang  half  erected. 
2 


10  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

two-thirds  of  the  firm  fascia  of  the  poison  gland.  Its  fibres  run  backwards  over 
this  body  and  descend  between  it  and  the  middle  temporal  muscle.  In  this  course 
the  fibres  lie  posteriorly  to  the  suspensory  ligament,  and  the  outer  ones,  as  they 
fold  about  the  articular  end  of  the  gland,  lie  in  contact  with  the  prolongation  of 
the  external  lateral  articular  ligament  upon  that  body.  Finally,  the  milscle  winds 
around  the  commissure  of  the  lips,  and  is  inserted  into  the  lower  jaw  some  distance 
in  front  of  the  angle  of  the  lips  at  h,  Fig.  4. 

The  middle  and  posterior  temporal  muscles.  Figs.  4  and  5,  arise  chiefly  from  the 


Myology. Lateral  view,    o — a,  gland  ;  6,  anterior  temporal  muscle  ;   c,  posterior  temporal  muscle ;  d,  digastricus 

muscle  ;  e,  posterior  ligament  of  tlie  sheath  of  the  gland  ;  /,  vagina  dentis— the  fang  slightly  raised. 

temporal  fossa  and  are  inserted,  one  behind  the  other,  into  the  lower  jaw.  As 
these  two  latter  muscles  descend  nearly  vertically,  their  obvious  function  is  to 
close  the  jaws.  The  use  of  the  anterior  temporal  is  in  part  also  the  closure  of  the 
jaws,  but  its  more  obvious  oflQce  is  to  press  upon  the  poison  gland,  as  we  shall 
presently  see. 

The  poison  gland  of  the  Crotalus  occupies  the  side  of  the  head,  behind  the  eye, 
and  beneath  the  anterior  temporal  muscle,  Fig.  5.  Its  posterior  extremity  extends 
three  or  four  lines  beyond  the  commissure  of  the  lips.  Its  anterior  end  lies  below 
and  just  behind  the  e3'e.  Thus  situated,  the  gland  is  in  relation  with  the  bony 
surface  behind  the  eye,  with  the  middle  temporal  muscle,  with  nerves  which  emerge 
under  the  suspensory  ligament,  and  with  the  anterior  temporal  muscle  above  and 
behind,  where  that  muscle  descends  to  its  insertion.  Beneath,  the  gland  is  in  contact 
with  the  external  pterygoid  muscle,  with  whose  aponeurosis  it  has  peculiar  relations. 
So  much  of  the  gland  as  lies  below  the  anterior  temporal  and  above  the  line  of  the 
lip,  is  in  relation  with  the  skin  which  is  here  loosely  connected  with  its  fascia  by 
areolar  tissue. 

The  general  form  of  the  gland  is  that  of  a  flattened,  almond-shaped  oval,  the 
posterior  end  being  somewhat  obtuse,  and  the  anterior  tapering  to  the  duct,  which 
begins  just  behind  and  below  the  eyeball. 

The  length  of  the  organ,  from  the  insertion  of  the  articular  ligament  to  the 
beginning  of  the  duct,  was  found  to  be  eight-tenths  of  an  inch,  in  a  snake  which  was 
four  feet  long,  and  weighed  two  pounds  and  two  ounces.  Its  breadth  was  nearly 
two-tenths  of  an  inch,  its  thickness  about  one-eighth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch. 

The  poison-glands  of  six  snakes  were  carefully  weighed,  after  exhausting  them 
of  their  contents,  during  the  life  of  the  snakes,  and  after  the  ducts  and  ligaments 
had  been  removed.  In  the  following  table,  the  weight  of  the  gland,  and  the  weight 
and  length  of  the  snake  are  given. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE. 


11 


NO. 
1       . 

weigai. 
.     1  lb.  6  oz. 

2     . 

.     4  " 

3     . 

.     3   " 

4    . 

.     3  lb.  6  oz. 

5     . 

.     2  lb.  4  oz. 

6     . 

.     3  lb.  9  oz. 

It  is  proper  to  mention  that  almost  all  of  these  snakes  had  been  in  captivity 
during  periods  of  from  two  to  eight  weeks. 

•  Length.  Weiglit  of  gland. 

.  2  ft.  1  inch  .  .  ■     7^  grains 

.  4  ft.  3J  inches  .  .     11^     " 

.  2  ft.  9        "  .  .  .9 

.  3  ft.  li      "  .  .  .     9A       " 

.  3  ft.  i"      "  .  .  .     Ti       " 

.4ft.  ...     12|     " 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  very  little  relation  can  be  established  between 
the  size  and  weight  of  the  snake,  and  the  weight  of  the  gland,  beyond  the  mere 
fact  of  the  general  increase  in  the  size  of  the  organ,  with  that  of  the  snake. 

The  poison  gland  is  invested  with  a  double  layer  of  white,  and  not  very  yield- 
ing fibrous  tissue.  The  two  layers  of  this  membrane  are  united  at  the  base  of  the 
gland,  and  becoming  thinner  anteriorly,  they  run  off  upon  the  duct,  constituting 
a  portion  of  its  thickness.  Besides  furnishing  attachment  for  the  anterior  temporal 
muscle,  the  outer  layer  of  this  capsule  gives  off  three  remarkable  ligamentous 
expansions  which  suspend  and  confine  the  gland. 

The  posterior  of  these  is  a  narrow,  but  strong  ribbon  of  fibrous  tissue,  see  Fig. 
5,  e,  which  runs  from  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  gland  to  the  articulation  of 
the  jaw,  where  it  appears  by  its  continuation  backwards,  to  constitute  one  of  the 
external  ligaments  of  that  joint. 

The  second,  which  we  shall  term  the  suspensory  ligament,  lies  behind  the  gland, 

Fig.  6. 


<il       Ne    \C 

A.  The  Gland  and  Temporal  MnscLES  seen  from  above.— a,  the  gland  ;  h,  anterior  temporal  muscle ;  c,  suspensory 
ligament  of  the  gland  extended ;  d,  duct,  drawn  from  its  position. 

B.  Dlagram  of  D0CT  and  Gland — side  view. — a,  the  venom  gland ;  b,  the  duct,  at  its  curve  ;  c,  the  sphincter ;  d, 
fang ;  e,  superior  maxillary  hone. 

Fig.  6  ^,  c,  a  little  above  its  middle  line.     It  arises  as  a  fan-like  expansion  upon 
the  capsule,  and  finally  narrows  to  one-third,  and  is  inserted  on  the  bony  surface 


12  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

to  the  inner  side  of  the  gknd.  This  ligament  is  i-emarkably  strong  and  unyield- 
ing ;  it  supports  the  gland  perfectly,  and  even  acts  as  a  passive  antagonist  to  the 
force  exerted  by  the  anterior  temporal  muscle,  while  at  the  same  time  it  shelters 
the  large  nerves  which  emerge  beneath  it  from  the  skull. 

The  third  attachment  of  the  gland  is  by  means  of  a  fascia,  which  foi'ms  a  strong 
expansion  upon  the  external  pterygoid  muscle,  Fig.  3,  c,  and  then  runs  off 
laterally,  to  be  inserted  upon  the  outer  capsule  of  the  gland.  This  connection  is 
principally  with  the  lower  and  anterior  portion  of  the  gland.  Its  object  will  attract 
our  attention  in  another  place. 

Anteriorly,  and  along  its  upper  edge,  the  gland  is  secured  by  areolar  tissue,  con- 
necting it  with  the  edges  of  the  temporal  fossa,  and  the  posterior  edge  of  the  orbit. 
At  the  extreme  anterior  point  of  the  temporal  muscle,  however,  a  portion  of  its 
proper  aponeurosis  is  gathered  into  a  band,  to  which  run  also  similar  fibres  from 
that  part  of  the  capsule  of  the  gland  which  lies  below  the  muscle.  This  collection 
of  rather  delicate  fibres — for  in  the  Crotalus  it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  tendon — 
runs  forward  above  the  flexure  in  the  duct,  and  below  the  eye,  to  lose  itself  on  the 
edge  of  the  fossa,  and  about  the  base  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone.  Soubeiran 
describes  in  the  Viper  a  tendinous  insertion  of  the  anterior  temporal,  as  taking  the 
track  here  described.  I  have  been  unable  to  discover  this  insertion  in  any  of  my 
dissections  of  the  Crotalus. 

In  almost  every  account  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Crotalus,  and  in  neai'ly  all  of 
the  essays  upon  the  effect  of  its  venom,  some  allusion  is  made  to  a  sac,  or  reservoir 
of  poison.  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  organ,  and  the  only  provision  for 
the  accumulation  of  venom  is  to  be  found  in  the  duct,  and  its  enlargement  within 
the  gland. 

The  duct  expands  somewhat  suddenly,  as  it  enters  the  gland,  and  being  directed 
backwards  and  a  little  upwards,  forms  an  irregularly-rounded  cavity,  which  runs 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  gland.  Into  this  receptacle,  the  smaller  ducts  of 
the  gland  empty  their  contents.  From  the  sides  of  this  cavity  there  run  obliquely 
upwards,  and  a  little  backwards,  from  five  to  eight  layers  of  white  fibrous  tissue, 
which,  lying  transversely  to  the  long  axis  of  the  gland,  separate  its  secreting 
portion  into  lobes,  which  narrow  as  they  approach  the  central  cavity.  The  septa 
here  described  are  finally  lost  in  the  capsule  of  the  gland.  On  their  passage  out- 
wards, they  send  off  numerous  branches  and  thin  sheets  of  tissue  which  proceed 
upwards,  for  the  most  part,  but  also  across  the  lobes,  and  thus  involve  the 
secernent  structure  in  a  supporting  scaffolding,  of  the  firmest  possible  character. 

The  gland  so  constructed,  resembles  very  strikingly,  in  section,  the  appearance 
of  a  small  testicle.  Its  color  is  usually  of  a  pearly  or  gray-white  within,  except 
under  certain  pathological  conditions,  when  it  is  full  of  blood,  and  presents  exter- 
nally a  darkly-mottled  look. 

The  intimate  structure  of  the  poison  gland  resembles  very  closely  that  of  the 
typical  salivary  glands.  From  the  open  space  at  the  base  of  the  gland,  a  number 
of  ducts  run  up  into  its  substance,  and  dividing,  pass  towards  the  periphery.  The 
direction  of  these  ducts  is,  for  the  most  part,  backwards  and  upwards.  Owing  to 
the  strength  of  the  fibrous  bands  which  traverse  the  gland,  and  to  the  extreme 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE. 


13 


softness  of  the  intermediate  tissue,  I  have  found  great  difficulty  in  tracing  the 
smaller  ducts,  Fig.  7,  h.  Soubeiran^  describes  them  in  the  Viper,  as  terminating  in 
minute  pouches  of  amorphous  matter.  Rymer  Jones  (article  "  Reptilia,"  Cyclopedia 
of  Anatomy  and  Physiology)  also  speaks  of   the  ducts  dividing,  to  form  smaller 

Fig.  7. 


Microscopical  Stkuctuee  of  the  Venom  Gland. — a,  secernent  oceca ;  6,  small  ducts 


tubes,  on  which  are  finally  developed  secernent  coeca.  Fig.  7,  a,  like  those  of  the 
ordinary  salivary  glands.  In  perfectly  fresh  specimens,  these  coeca  can  sometimes  be 
made  out.  They  are  lined  with  pale  tessellated  and  nucleated  rounded  epithelia, 
and  are  commonly  filled  with  amorphous  and  granular  matter.  Fig.  7,  a.  The 
epithelia  in  question  are  very  easily  altered,  and  in  glands  kept  for  a  few  hours  in 
summer,  are  scarcely  to  be  recognized.  The  smaller  ducts  are  lined  with  a  pale 
and  narrow  columnar  epithelial  cell,  Fig.  7,  h.  The  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  gland, 
as  well  as  the  main  duct  which  connects  with  the  fang,  are  lined  with  large  pave- 
ment-epithelial cells,  which  possess  distinct  nuclei.  Fig.  8,  a.  This  form  of  epithelia 
is  not  usually  encountered  in  this  position,  in  homologous  glands,  whose  ducts  are, 
on  the  contrary,  covered  internally  with  columnar  epithelia.  Outside  of  this  cellular 
layer,  the  poison  duct  is  made  up  principally  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  with  a  small 
proportion  of  very  fine  fibres  of  yellow  elastic  tissue.  The  walls  of  the  duct  are 
provided  throughout  with  an  abundant  supply  of  bloodvessels. 

Just  above  the  line  of  the  lip,  and  consequently  at  the  base  and  outer  side  of 
the  maxillary  bone,  the  duct,  in  turning  to  descend  this  bone,  becomes  abruptly 
larger,  for  a  distance  of  a  line,  or  a  line  and  a  half.  Fig.  6  B,  c.  Its  color  at  this 
point  is  also  a  little  redder  than  the  rest  of  the  duct.  Beyond  this  point,  the  duct 
again  becomes  smaller.     If  now  a  probe  be  introduced  into  the  duct,  and  its  whole 


^nuhcirnn,  De  la  Vipere.     Paris,  1855,  p.  47. 


14  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

length  divided,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  calibre  of  the  canal  does  not  enlarge, 
until  it  reaches  the  gland,  and  that  the  appearance  of  increased  size  here  described, 
is  due  to  a  distinct  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  tube. 

Fiar.  8. 


a,  Epithelial  cells  of  main  duct,  and  of  the  receptacle  at  the  base  of  the  gland ;  6,  pigment-cells  of  the  duct. 

Fig.  9. 


NON-STKIATED  MdSCULAB  FiBEE-CELLS  OF  THE  SPHINCTER  OP  THE  DuCT. 

Upon  cai'eful  examination  of  the  nature  of  this  tissue,  I  found  it  to  be  formed 
by  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  by  the  addition  of  a  layer  of 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  15 

elongated  fusiform  cells,  Fig.  9,  each  having  a  single  nucleus,  and  sometimes  a  long, 
dark  nucleolus. 

These  elements  are  undoubtedly  the  characteristic  cells  of  non-striated  muscular 
tissue.-^  Their  presence,  together  with  the  form  and  position  of  this  enlargement, 
enables  us  to  view  it  as  a  sphincter  placed  upon  the  duct,  for  the  purpose  of 
restraining  the  wasteful  flow  of  the  secretion.  This  portion  of  the  wall  of  the  duct 
contains  numerous  irregular,  stellate,  pigment-cells.  Fig.  8,  h.  So  far  as  I  am 
aware,  no  author  has  described  this  adjunct  to  the  venom  apparatus.  Of  its  pur- 
pose, however,  I  have  no  doubt ;  and  that  some  such  provision  does  exist,  is  plain, 
from  the  fact  that,  when  in  the  living  Rattlesnake  the  jaws  are  separated,  and  the 
fangs  caught  on  the  edge  of  a  thin  cup,  and  erected,  it  is  usually  very  difficult  to 
produce  a  flow  of  venom.  Even  when  the  operator  presses  upon  the  glands,  the 
poison  is  rarely  ejected,  without  the  voluntary  aid  of  the  snake  itself^  After  death, 
the  remnant  of  fluid  in  the  gland,  although  small  in  amount,  is  easily  forced  out 
along  the  duct,  and  through  the  fang.  It  is,  therefore,  very  plain,  that  the  snake 
has  the  power  to  restrain  the  flow  of  venom,  even  when  the  fangs  are  in  such  a 
position  as  that  without  the  aid  of  the  arrangement  we  have  described,  they  must 
inevitably  permit  of  the  escape  of  the  poison. 

Beyond  the  sphincter,  the  duct  becomes  smaller  in  calibre,  and  the  walls  thin- 
ner. To  reach  the  fissure  at  the  base  and  anterior  aspect  of  the  fang-tooth,  the 
duct  runs  up  the  posterior  edge  of  the  fossette,  and  winds  over  the  rounded  antero- 
lateral shoulder  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone  to  reach  its  anterior  face,  where  it 
communicates  with  the  fissure  in  the  fang.  The  value  of  the  course  thus  taken  by 
the  duct,  we  shall  elsewhere  consider. 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  course  of  the  duct,  should,  however,  claim  attention, 
as  it  has  also  a  mechanical  use.  Just  below  the  eye,  the  duct  is  abruptly  bent, 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  5. 

In  its  passage  from  the  gland  to  the  tooth,  the  duct  is  held  in  place  by  a  sheet  of 
rather  close  areolar  tissue,  which  admits  of  the  curves  in  the  tube  being  straight- 
ened, as  occasion  requires.  The  part  nearest  to  the  gland  also  receives  some  of  the 
fibres  from  the  dense  fascia  which  invests  the  external  pterygoid  muscle. 

The  structure  of  the  fang  in  venomous  serpents  has  been  so  minutely  described 
by  Owen,^  that  a  brief  synopsis  of  his  views  will  be  all  that  we  shall  require.  I 
have  carefully  examined  the  fang-tooth  by  the  aid  of  fine  sections,  and  I  have 
nothing  to  add  to  the  following  excellent  description  by  the  author  above  mentioned. 

"  To  give  an  idea  of  the  structure  of  this  tooth,  we  may  suppose  a  simple, 
slender  tooth,  like  that  of  a  boa-constrictor,  to  be  flattened,  and  its  edges  then  bent 
towards  each  other,  and  soldered  together,  so  as  to  form  a  tube,  open  at  both  ends, 
and  inclosing  the  end  of  the  poison  duct.     The  duct  which  conveys  the  poison. 


'  Dr.  Woodward,  who  was  so  kind  as  to  examine  these  structures,  agreed  with  me  as  to  their  nature. 

°  This  is  only  true  of  the  active  animal ;  when  insensible  from  chloroform,  the  glands  are  easily  emp- 
tied by  pressure. 

=  Owen  on  the  Skeleton  and  Teeth,  Philada.  18.54,  p.  25T,  and  Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physio- 
logy, article  Teeth. 


16  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

although  it  runs  through  the  centre  of  the  tooth,  is  really  on  the  outside  of  the 
tooth.  The  bending  of  the  dentine  beyond  it,  begins  a  little  beyond  the  base  of 
the  tooth,  where  the  poison  duct  rests  in  a  slight  groove,  or  longitudinal  indenta- 
tion, on  the  convex  side  of  the  fang ;  as  it  proceeds,  it  sinks  deeper  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tooth,  and  the  sides  of  the  groove  meet  and  coalesce,  so  that  the  trace 
of  the  inflected  fold  ceases,  in  some  species,  to  be  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
the  fang  appears,  as  it  is  commonly  described  to  be,  perforated  by  the  duct  of  the 
poison  gland." 

The  tooth  fang,  in  the  Rattlesnake,  has  a  peculiar  double  curve.  The  lower 
curve  is  large,  and  has  an  anterior  convexity ;  the  upper  involves  only  two  or  three 
lines  of  the  length  of  the  tooth  from  the  point  down,  and  is  nearly  straight,  or 
presents  a  slight  concavity  anteriorly.  The  whole  length  of  the  fang,  from  point 
to  base,  was  j-5_  of  an  inch  in  a  snake,  four  feet  two  inches  long.  One-tenth  of  an 
inch  below  the  point. in  this  tooth,  the  poison  canal  opened  on  the  anterior,  or  con- 
vex surface  of  the  fang.  Above  this,  the  fang  was  solid ;  as  the  true  pulp  cavity 
terminated  some  distance  lower  down.  The  point  of  this  singular  weapon  is  brittle, 
but  of  an  exquisite  fineness.  The  tooth  thus  described,  is  firmly  anchylosed  to  the 
submaxillary  bone,  its  base  being  luted  to  the  portion  of  bone  ai'ound  its  side  and 
antei'ior  aspect.  Posteriorly,  the  bone  possesses  a  hollow,  in  which  is  lodged  the 
tooth  sac.  In  the  open  mouth  of  this  alveolar  process,  within  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  upon  the  pterygoid  bone,  lie  one  behind  and  below  another,  the  reserve 
fangs,  each  smaller  than  the  one  in  front,  and  less  and  less  developed,  until  the 
situation  of  the  last  which  is  visible,  is  marked  by  a  minute  papilla  alone.  I  have 
counted  from  eight  to  ten  of  these  on  each  side.  A  very  good  account  of  their 
gradual  development  has  been  given  by  W.  J.  Burnett.^  The  details  do  not 
directly  concern  us  here. 

When  the  fang  is  lost  by  a  natural  process,  it  is  replaced  within  a  few  days. 
When  violently  displaced,  several  weeks  sometimes  elapse  before  the  next  fang  is 
fixed  firmly  enough  to  be  useful  to  the  snake. 

If  the  functional  fang  be  lost  or  shed,  the  next  tooth  gradually  assumes  its 
position,  but  of  the  mode  in  which  the  communication  is  re-established  between 
the  poison  duct  and  the  fissure  of  the  lower  part  and  front  of  the  new  tooth,  we 
have  had  no  correct  knowledge  until  a  recent  period. 

Burnett  states,  that  "  the  original  tooth  follicle  appears  to  him  to  become  the 
poison  gland  or  sac."  He  then  goes  on  to  support  this  view  briefly,  still  speaking 
of  the  poison  gland  as  possibly  accompanying  the  tooth  in  its  forward  movement. 
Dr.  Burnett  must  have  made  this  statement  under  a  misconception,  as  it  is  well 
known  there  is  no  poison  sac  or  gland  at  the  base  of  the  fang,  or  in  immediate 
connection  with  it. 

Moi'e  recently,  the  subject  of  the  development  of  the  fangs  and  the  mode  in 
which  the  fixed  fang  is  replaced,  when  shed  or  broken,  have  been  carefully  studied 
by  my  friend.  Dr.  Christopher  Johnston,  of  Baltimore,  whose  skill  as  an  observer, 

»  W.  J.  Burnett,  M.  D.,  Boston  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  vol.  iv.  p.  311-323. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  17 

as  well  as  his  peculiar  knowledge  of  dental  structures,  entitle  his  views  to  great 
respect. 

At  my  request,  Dr.  .Johnston  has  repeated  his  observations,  and  most  kindly 
placed  them  at  my  disposal.     The  following  statement  is  in  his  own  language : — 

"  The  study  of  heads  prepared  by  me,  leads  me  to  entertain  the  following  opinion 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  secondai'y  fangs  establish  a  communication  with  the 
poison  duct.  There  appears  to  me  good  reason  to  believe  that  there  is  a  periodical 
fall  of  the  venom  fangs,  quite  independent  of  violence ;  and  this  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  physiological  circumstance  agreeing  with  what  takes  place  in  fishes,  as  Pike 
or  Gar,  and  in  reptiles,  as  Iguana,  as  well  as  with  what  occurs  in  the  jaws  of 
Megalosaurus,  Hadrosaurus,  etc.  For  I  have  not  observed  in  the  jaws  of  Crotali  of 
the  same  species  a  constant  relation  between  the  size  of  the  serpent  and  of  its 
fangs ;  and  when  I  couple  with  the  disproportion  alluded  to,  the  fact,  that  at  nearly 
all  seasons,  reserve  fangs  and  germs  are  found  in  every  degree  of  advancement  or 
development,  I  cannot  suppose  that  the  almost  mature  secondaries  are  awaiting  an 
accident  to  effect  their  promotion.  We  know  that  in  Alligator  especially,  the 
secondaries  occasion  by  their  development  the  erosion  of  the  base,  and  the  con- 
sequent displacement  of  their  predecessors,  and  assume  positions  from  which  they 
are  to  be  in  turn  expelled. 

"  In  Crotalus,  the  secondary  fangs  lie  in  separate  capsules  at  the  bottom  of  the 
dens  in  the  mucous  membrane,  where  the  fangs  crouch  when  not  erected.  Their 
pulps  are  arranged  in  order  upon  a  gum  which  lies  at  the  base  and  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  functioning  fang ;  and  each  developing  fang  is  inclosed  in  a  separate 
capsule  and  points  directly  backwards. 

"  Now  a  transverse  section  of  a  pulp  in  any  part  of  its  extent,  gives  a  crescentic 
figure,  hardly  perceptible  as  a  crescent  at  the  point,  evidently  lunate  with  separate 
horns  on  either  side  of  the  distal  aperture  of  the  poison  canal,  and  again  a  crescent, 
but  with  closely  approximated  cornua,  throughout  the  rest  of  the  crown,  where  the 
two  longitudinal  folds  of  dentine  meet  along  the  median  line  and  are  fused  together, 

"  As  the  growth  of  the  tooth  advances,  a  slight  annular  enlargement  marks  its 
neck,  or  at  least  the  limit  of  the  crown,  and  then  the  two  horns  of  the  pulp  diverge 
widely,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  base,  which  is  in  process  of  formation,  but  again 
approach  each  other,  yet  without  meeting,  as  the  base  goes  on  to  completion.  It 
may  here  be  remarked,  that  the  pulp  acquires  greater  volume  at  this  part  of  the 
fang,  which  is  more  extended  along  the  posterior  edge  than  in  front,  and  is  marked, 
both  internally  and  externally,  with  conspicuous  longitudinal  flutings. 

"  The  dentine  of  the  basal  portion  in  front,  necessarily  follows  the  modelling 
pulp ;  and  as  this,  by  the  separation  of  the  anterior  lamellae,  leaves  an  ovoidal 
hiatus,  so  the  tooth  substance  investing  the  matrix  shows  the  free  edge  of  its  folds 
on  either  side  as  the  margin  of  a  large  aperture,  the  inlet  .of  the  poison  canal.  ALL 
this  occurs  while  yet  the  tooth-capsule  is  entire. 

"  In  this  condition  the  secondary  fang  remains  until  the  fang  in  use  falls  sponta- 
neously or  by  violence ;  and  the  secondaries  behind  it  will  be  found  to  exhibit 
successive  inferior  stages  of  development.  At  length  the  prime  fang  is  removed,  if 
spontaneously,  by  the  atrophy  of  the  pulp,  and,  I  believe,  by  erosion  of  the  basal 
3 


18  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

anchylosed  portion ;  if  it  be  broken  off  by  violence,  the  freedom  of  the  pseudo  socket 
is  accomplished  by  the  same  means.  And  now  the  first  tooth  of  reserve  is  urged 
forwards  into  a  recess  in  the  maxillary  bone  directly  adjacent  to,  and  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  fallen  fang ;  and  the  requisite  advancement  is  brought  about  by  the 
developmental  vis  a  tergo  of  the  remaining  reserve  pulps,  and  probably  also  by  the 
traction  in  front,  exerted  by  the  cicatrizing  parts.  It  is  evident  that  the  fang 
emerges  from  its  capsule,  and  that  the  point  and  crown  repose  in  the  den,  but 
the  base  is  closely  invested  with  the  capsular  remains  under  the  form  of  a  perios- 
teal expansion,  which  is  the  mediate  bond  of  union  between  the  base  and  the  new 
and  shallow  socket  of  the  maxilla. 

"  As  may  be  perceived,  upon  examination  at  this  stage,  two  sockets  co-exist  in 
the  same  jaw.  The  inner,  new  one,  supporting  the  recently  promoted  fang,  and 
the  outer,  old,  and  now  vacant  one,  which  is  fast  being  disencumbered  of  the  ves- 
tiges pertaining  to  its  former  resident.  In  this  maxilla,  the  new  fang  occupies  the 
innermost  part,  having  the  old  socket  on  the  outer  side,  while  in  the  opposite  max- 
illa, the  older  venom  fang  may  be  discovered  in  its  normal  situation,  leaving  the 
recess  to  its  inner  side  vacant,  for  the  temporary  lodgment  of  its  successor.  Or, 
both  fangs  being  recently  fixed  to  the  jaw,  the  vacuities  will  both  be  formed  on 
the  outside,  and  all  the  reserve  fangs  will  appear  to  follow  backwards  and  outwards 
in  direct  line. 

"  Now  let  us  look  at  the  situation  of  the  poison  duct,  and  examine  into  the  mode 
by  which  it  is  brought  into  relation  with  the  fang. 

"  The  venom  duct  arising  from  the  gland  makes  a  bend  upwards,  immediately 
beneath  the  eye,  then  advances  forwards  under  the  skin,  as  far  as  the  crotaline 
fossette,  and  lying  upon  the  maxilla  externally,  plunges  downwards,  and  pierces 
the  gum  in  front  of  the  fang,  where  it  terminates  in  a  papilla,  which  projects 
slightly  into  the  proximal  aperture  of  the  tooth.  In  this  position,  it  is  maintained 
by  the  gum  which  clasps  the  base  laterally  and  in  front,  with  considerable  firmness, 
its  inferior  or  distal  edge,  encompassing  the  annular  enlargement  already  alluded 
to.  Nor  is  there  any  other  than  a  mediate  application  of  the  poison  papilla  against 
the  fang,  for  as  the  whole  venom  canal  of  each  tooth  is  really  upon  the  outside  of 
the  organ,  no  special  membrane  lines  it  which  might  be  continuous  with  the  duct 
that  discharges  into  the  upper  aperture. 

"Such  is  the  condition  of  things  in  an. old  fang,  occupying  its  normal  exterior 
position.  But  when  the  tooth  drops  out,  or  is  broken,  the  gum  is  left  entire;  or, 
if  its  exodus  has  been  forced,  the  gum  escapes  with  laceration  only.  In  either 
case,  however,  the  gum  remains  as  a  barrier,  limiting  the  progress  of  the  advancing 
reserve  fang;  and  while  the  latter  is  establishing  itself  provisionally,  the  gum 
encircles  it,  clasps  it  tenaciously,  and  brings  the  poison  papilla  in  apposition  with 
its  dental  aperture.  As  time  passes,  the  new  fang  moves  gradually  outwards  to  its 
permanent  seat;  the  inner  maxillary  recess  is  restored,  and  the  first  fang  of  reserve 
is  again  discovered  on  the  inner  side  of  its  senior,  resting  with  its  pulp  attachment 
in  the  bottom  of  the  recess. 

"  Thus,  the  reserve  fang  has  become  an  adult  functioning  fang,  nor  does  its  pulp 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  19 

relax  its  hold,  until  fate  or  mischance  dislodge  the  now  fatally-armed  tooth  which 
it  animates." 

Before  leaving  this  portion  of  the  subject,  it  is  proper  to  state  that  the  views 
expressed  by  my  friend  Dr.  Johnston,  as  to  the  want  of  direct  continuity  between 
the  duct  of  the  poison  gland  and  the  tooth  canal,  have  been  recently  advocated  by 
Prof  Jeffries  Wyman,  of  Boston.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  point  out  this 
coincidence  of  opinion ;  and  while  acknowledging  Prof.  Wyman's  priority  of  claim 
as  established  by  publication,  I  must  not  omit  to  add  that  Dr.  Johnston's  manu- 
script notes — which  I  have  quoted  above — bear  the  date  of  Oct.  3d,  1859,  since 
which  time  they  have  been  in  my  own  possession.^ 

The  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  10,  illustrates  our  views  as  to  the  direction 
taken  by  the  new  fang,  in  its  progress  towards  the  alveolar  socket. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  Dr.  Johnston  states,  that  the  first  reserve  fang 
enters  the  semilunar  socket  in  the  maxilla,  to  the  inside  of  the  active  fang.  Al- 
though this  is  often  or  usually  the  case,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  two  fixed 

Fig.  10. 
a 


a.-^-^. 


a,  Alveolar  socket ;  h,  functionary  fang  ;  c,  its  successor  ;  d,  the  next  fang  in  order  of  age  ;  e,  remaining  germs. 

fangs,  unsymmetrically  placed,  one  on  the  inner,  the  other  on  the  outer  side,  of 
their  respective  alveolse,  or  both  on  the-  inner  side ;  or  again,  both  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  said  socket. 

In  all  other  points,  my  own  researches  agree  with  those  of  Dr.  Johnston. 


May  16th,  1860;  Proc.  Boston  Nat.  Hist.  See. 


20  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE   PHYSIOLOGICAL   MECHANISM  OF   THE  BITE   OF   THE  CROTALTJS. 

The  preceding  details  will  enable  us  to  understand  the  following  statement  of 
the  functions  of  the  various  parts  described,  and  to  appreciate  the  mode  in  which 
thej'  combine  to  effect  a  given  purpose. 

Of  the  many  authors  who  have  treated  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
Rattlesnake  and  other  venomous  serpents,  no  one  has  entered  fully  into  the  subject 
of  the  mechanism  of  the  movements  which  inflict  the  bite  and  inject  the  poison. 
Redi,  Fontana,  Tyson,  Ranby,  Smith,  Home,  Duvernoy,  Soubeiran,  and  others, 
have  nearly  all  in  turn  contributed  something  to  this  subject,  but  I  find  nowhere  a 
full  and  complete  account  of  the  part  played  by  the  various  muscles  and  of  the 
exact  uses  of  many  of  the  peculiar  arrangements  of  tissue  which  characterize  the 
poison  apparatus.  Nothing,  in  fact,  can  be  more  admirable  than  the  mode  in 
which  the  motions  in  question  are  effected,  and  yet  while  they  interest  the  physio- 
logist, from  the  wonderful  example  they  afford  of  a  series  of  complex  acts  following 
one  upon  another  in  ordered  sequence,  to  effect  a  certain  end,  they  are  not  less 
interesting  to  the  physician,  who  may  learn  from  their  study  how  he  may  be 
deceived  as  to  the  occurrence  of  poisoned  wounds,  and  how  the  snake  which 
appears  to  strike  may  really  fail  in  its  object,  even  though  seeming  to  have 
inflicted  a  wound. 

When  the  Rattlesnake  is  in  repose  and  unmolested,  it  sometimes  lies  at  length, 
sometimes  coiled,  or  wrapped  fold  on  fold  in  the  loops  formed  by  other  snakes  which 
may  happen  to  be  in  the  same  box.  So  soon,  however,  as  cause  is  seen  for  alarm, 
the  snake  extricates  itself,  if  among  others,  and  at  once  throws  its  body  into  the  coil 
so  familiar  to  any  one  who  has  seen  serpents,  whether  venomous  or  not.  Some- 
times on  the  edge,  more  often  in  the  centre  of  the  coil,  the  tail  projects  far  enough 
to  admit  of  its  vibrating  freely,  and  with  singular  swiftness. 

The  head  is  raised  a  little  above  the  rest  of  the  body,  but  not,  usually,  more 
than  three  or  four  inches,  even  in  large  snakes.  The  neck  and  upper  end  of  the 
trunk  are  not  thrown  into  complete  circles,  but  lie  in  two  or  three  abrupt 
curves  across  the  mass  of  the  coiled  body.  The  snake  is  now  in  position  to  strike. 
While  thus  at  bay,  in  an  attitude  of  singular  grace,  the  long  black  tongue  is  fre- 
quently protruded,  a  common  movement  among  all  serpents  when  irritated.  Just 
before  the  blow  the  snake  makes  a  hissing  sound,  which  is  caused  by  the  act  of 
expiration,  and  is  due  to  the  passage  of  air  through  the  narrow  glottis.  It  is 
louder  in  certain  innocent  serpents  than  in  the  Crotalus. 

The  mechanism  of  the  forward  cast  of  the  body,  which  next  occurs,  is  a  very 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  21 

simple  matter.  The  muscles  which  lie  upon  the  convexity  of  the  bendings  formed 
by  the  upper  part  of  the  snake,  are  suddenly  and  violently  contracted,  so  as 
abruptly  to  straighten  the  body,  and  thrust  it  forward  in  a  direct  line.  The  force 
residting  from  this  motion  is  not  very  great,  as  I  have  often  ascertained  when  a 
snake  has  struck  the  end  of  a  pole  which  I  was  holding,  nor  would  it  alone  suffice 
to  bury  the  fang  in  a  tough  skin,  were  it  not  for  the  acts  which  follow  and  aid  it. 
In  effecting  this  forward  thrust  of  the  neck  and  head,  the  serpent  employs  only 
the  upper  part  of  its  body,  and,  consequently,  is  unable,  under  any  circumstances, 
to  strike  at  a  greater  distance  than  one-half  its  length,  while  usually  its  projectile 
range  does  not  exceed  a  third  of  its  length.  An  impression  prevails  that  when 
the  snake  lies  coiled,  its  head  is  raised  very  high  to  enable  it  to  strike  downwards. 
It  seems,  however,  to  be  of  no  moment,  in  what  direction  the  danger  threatens, 
since  it  can,  at  will,  cast  itself  forwards,  downwards,  or  almost  directly  upwards. 

As  the  animal  comes  within  reach,  of  which  the  snake  does  not  always  judge 
with  accuracy,  the  latter  executes  the  movement  just  described.  At  the  instant, 
and  wtiile  in  motion,  the  jaws  are  separated  widely,  and  the  head  is  bent  somewhat 
back  upon  the  first  cervical  bones,  so  as  to  bring  the  point  of  the  fang  into  a  favor- 
able position  to  penetrate  the  opposing  flesh.  Owing  to  the  backward  curve  of  the 
tooth,  this,  of  necessity  involves  the  opening  of  the  jaws  to  such  an  extent,  that  an 
observer  standing  above  the  snake,  can  see  the  white  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  as  the  blow  is  given.  The  peculiar  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  upon  an 
intermediary  bone,  in  place  of  upon  the  body  of  the  skull,  greatly  facilitates  this 
action.  On  examining  the  neck  and  head,  it  will  also  be  seen  that  the  head,  under 
the  influence  of  the  cervical  prolongation  of  the  mass  of  the  spinal  muscles,  is 
capable  of  being  bent  backwards  to  no  inconsiderable  extent.  Consentaneously 
with  the  forward  thrust  of  the  body,  and  with  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  the 
spheno-pterygoids  act  from  their  firm  cranial  attachments  to  draw  forward  the 
pterygoid  plate,  and  thus,  through  its  attachment  to  the  njaxillary  to  erect  the 
fang.  The  function  of  elevating  the  fang  belongs  alone  to  this  muscle,  which  has 
no  analogue  in  the  other  vertebrate  animals.  I  have  frequently  tested  its  power 
to  raise  the  fang,  by  stimulating  it  with  galvanic  or  other  irritants,  after  decapi- 
tating the  snake,  and  although  some  French  observers  seem  to  have  had  doubts  as 
to  the  agencies  which  efiect  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  fang,  there  does 
not  seem  to  me  to  be  any  reason  to  doubt  the  share  which  the  spheno-pterygoid 
takes  in  this  mechanism.  That  the  mere  act  of  opening  the  mouth,  of  necessity 
raises  the  weapon,  has  often  been  affirmed,  but  it  is  only  necessary  to  separate  the 
jaws  of  a  living  Crotalus  to  be  convinced  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  even 
when  the  mouth  is  widely  opened,  the  animal  has  the  most  perfect  control  over 
the  movement  of  the  fang,  raising  or  depressing  it  at  will. 

As  the  spheno-pterygoid  acts,  the  submaxillary  bone  rocks  forward  upon  its 
lachrymal  articulation.  When  the  motion  reaches  its  limit,  and  is  checked  by  the 
ligament  which  I  have  described,  the  supporting  lachrymal  bone,  in  turn,  yields  to 
the  power  applied  through  the  maxillary  bone.  These  movements  elevate  a  little 
the  muzzle  of  the  snake,  so  as  to  give  to  the  face  a  very  singular  expression  during 
the  act  of  striking.     Their  more  obvious  and  important  result,  is  the  elevation  of 


22  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

the  fang,  which,  rising,  thrusts  off,  from  its  convexity,  the  cloak-Hke  vagina-den tis 
so  that  it  gathers  in  loose  folds  at  its  base. 

As  the  unsheathed  tooth  penetrates  the  flesh  of  the  victim,  a  series  of  move- 
ments occur,  which  must  be  contemporaneous,  or  nearly  so.  The  body  of  the 
snake  still  resting  in  coil,  makes,  as  it  were,  an  anchor,  while  the  muscles  of  the 
neck  contracting,  draw  upon  the  head  so  violently,  that  when  a  small  animal  is 
the  prey,  it  is  often  dragged  back  by  the  effort  here  described.  If  now  the  head 
and  fang  remained  passive,  the  pull  upon  the  head  would  withdraw  the  fang  too 
soon;  but  at  this  moment,  the  head  is  probably  stayed  in  its  position  by  the 
muscles  below,  or  in  front  of  the  spine;  while  the  pterj^goideus  externus  and 
spheno-palatine,  acting  upon  the  fang  through  their  respective  insertions,  into  the 
posterior  apophysis  of  the  submaxillary  bone,  and  the  inside  of  the  palate  bone, 
draw  its  point  violently  backwards,  so  as  to  drive  it  more  deeply  into  the  flesh. 
The  muscles  alluded  to,  therefore,  antagonize  the  spheno-pterygoid. 

At  this  instant,  occurs  a  third  series  of  motions,  which  result  in  the  further 
deepening  of  the  wound,  and  in  the  injection  of  the  poison. 

The  lower  jaw  is  closed  upon  the  bitten  part,  or  member.  Where  the  surface 
struck  is  flat  and  large,  this  action  will  have  but  slight  influence.  Where  the  jaw 
shuts  on  a  small  limb,  or  member,  the  consequent  effects  will  be  far  more  likely  to 
prove  serious,  since  the  power  thus  to  shut  the  mouth  materially  aids  the  purpose 
of  the  blow.  The  closure  of  the  jaw  is  effected  by  the  posterior  middle,  and  ante- 
rior temporal  muscles.  The  first  two  tend  simply  to  shut  the  mouth ;  the  anterior 
temporal,  however,  is  so  folded  about  the  poison  gland,  that  while  it  draws  up  the 
lower  jaw,  it  simultaneously  compresses  two-thirds  of  the  body  of  the  gland. 
This  force  is  applied  in  such  a  manner  as  to  squeeze  the  fluids  out  of  the  upper  and 
back  parts  of  the  gland,  and  drive  them  forwards  into  the  duct.  The  anterior 
lower  angle  of  the  gland,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  duct,  is  subjected  to  similar 
pressure  at  the  same  instant,  owing  to  the  flat  tendinous  insertion  of  a  part  of  the 
external  pterygoid  upon  the  parts  in  question. 

It  will  thus  be  observed,  that  the  same  muscular  acts  which  deepen  the  wound, 
fix  the  prey,  and  inject  the  venom  through  the  duct,  and  into  the  tissues  pene- 
trated by  the  tooth.-'  The  whole  process  here  described  at  such  length,  is  the  work 
of  an  instant,  and  the  serpent's  next  effort  is  to  disentangle  itself  from  its  victim. 
This  step  is  effected  by  relaxing  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  so  as  to  leave  the  head 
passive,  while  the  continued  traction  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  pull  upon  it,  and 
thus  withdraw  the  fang,  over  which   glides  the  elastic   mucous   sheath   as  the 


*  It  follows  from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Johnston,  and  Prof.  Wyman,  that  no  tissue  connection 
exists  between  the  venom  duct  and  the  basal  opening  in  the  fang.  It  becomes  necessary,  under  these 
circumstances,  to  explain  how  the  poison  is  carried  from  one  to  the  other.  Usually  the  projecting  papilla 
at  the  end  of  the  duct,  is  held  by  the  gum  in  close  contact  with  the  fang  opening,  and  when  the  fang,  in 
rising,  thrusts  back  its  mucous  cloak,  this  presses  upon  the  parts  at  the  base  of  the  fang  so  firmly,  as  to 
bring  them  into  perfect  apposition.  This  explanation  is  given  by  Prof  Wyman.  It  does  very  often 
happen,  however,  that  a  part  only,  or  even  none,  of  the  venom  enters  the  fang,  but  is  violently  ejected 
between  that  weapon  and  the  edges  of  the  vagina  dentis. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  23 

pterygoid,  again  acting,  depresses  the  fang,  and  the  serpent  recovers  its  posture  of 
defence. 

It  happens,  not  unfrequently,  that  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  catch  in  the  skin 
of  the  bitten  animal,  and  thus  prevent  the  snake  from  retreating  at  once.  When 
this  takes  place,  the  serpent  shakes  its  head  from  side  to  side,  with  a  motion  which 
so  nearly  resembles  the  shake  a  dog  gives  his  prey,  that  it  has  been  mistaken  by  at 
least  one  observer  for  an  expression  of  rage.  It  is  really  an  attempt  to  escape ; 
nor  is  it  always  successful,  since  a  large  animal  will  often  drag  a  snake  until  the 
fangs  themselves  break  loose,  and  are  left  in,  or  on,  the  bitten  part. 

In  considering  this  portion  of  our  subject,  it  is  well  to  notice  what  has  been  too 
much  overlooked,  the  fact  that,  while  the  snake  commonly  employs  both  fangs,  it 
does  often  inflict  but  a  single  wound.  When  obtaining  venom  from  living  snakes, 
I  have  been  accustomed  to  allow  them  to  bite  upon  the  inner  edge  of  a  cup,  and  I 
have  observed  that  on  some  occasions  both  fangs  were  used  at  once,  and  that  on 
others  only  one  was  active.  Or,  the  fangs  were  used  in  succession,  an  appreciable 
interval  of  time  intervening.  If  this  occur,  when  a  snake  at  freedom  strikes  an 
object,  it  is,  of  course,  possible  that  the  animal  may  escape  before  the  second  fang 
is  driven  in  by  the  traction  of  its  proper  external  pterygoid  muscle.  At  all  events, 
it  is  certain  that  these  facts  should  receive  due  appreciation,  in  estimating  the 
danger  of  a  given  bite,  and  the  value  of  an  antidote. 

There  remains  for  consideration  one  muscular  motion,  which  I  have  observed 
to  accompany  the  eJ0fort  to  bite,  when  the  snake  is  held  by  the  back  of  the  neck. 
It  consists  in  a  turning  outwards  of  the  points  of  the  fangs,  so  as  to  separate  them 
from  one  another.^  This  divergence  of  the  fang  points  is  disadvantageous,  inasmuch 
as  it  causes  them  to  enter  somewhat  obliquely,  and  frequently  throws  one  fang 
beyond  the  part  bitten,  when  that  part  happens  to  be  small.  It  has  a  use  with 
reference  to  the  snake  itself,  since  the  fang-points,  when  thus  widely  separated,  lie 
outside  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  are  thus  prevented  from  wounding  it.  This  purpose 
is  greatly  aided  by  the  action  of  a  muscle  analogous  to  the  mylo-hyoid,  which 
approximates  the  anterior  extremities  of  the  lower  maxillary,  or  mandibular  bones, 
so  as  to  make  narrow  the  extremity  of  the  jaw.  The  protection  thus  obtained  is 
very  essential,  since  the  serpent  always  closes  the  jaw  violently  when  biting,  but 
does  not  always  succeed  in  seizing  its  prey.  Whether  or  not  this  divergence  of 
the  fang-points  occurs  when  the  snake  bites  unrestrainedly,  I  cannot  say ;  but  as  I 
have  been  very  often  astonished  at  the  distance  between  the  wounds,  where  both 
fangs  had  taken  effect,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  occurs  under  all  circumstances. 

We  have  still  left  for  consideration  certain  points  of  minor  interest,  in  connection 
with  the  part  played  by  the  gland  in  the  train  of  actions  which  I  have  described. 
This  organ,  as  we  have  seen,  is  violently  compressed  by  the  anterior  temporal  muscle, 
and  perhaps  by  the  posterior  temporal,  as  well  as  indirectly  by  the  external  pterygoid. 
Under  the  pressure  thus  applied,  the  venom  passes  through  the  duct,  and  out  of 
the  fang.     Now,  as  it  is  clear  that  the  temporal  muscles  must  be  often  used  to 


'  I  could  not  determine  whether  this  divergence  took'  place  when  the  snake,  at  freedom,  struck  an 
animal. 


24  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

close  the  jaws,  under  circumstances  which  do  not  demand  the  ejection  of  venom, 
we  must  suppose,  either  that  the  anterior  temporal  is,  at  times,  functionally  inactive, 
or  else  that  some  provision  exists  for  restraining  the  flow  of  poison,  when  the  gland 
is  incidentally  compressed  during  the  ordinary  movements  of  the  lower  jaw,  as  in 
gaping  (a  common  action  with  snakes),  deglutition,  etc. 

The  closure  of  the  duct  is  provided  for  in  two  ways,  one  of  which  is  peculiarly 
ingenious.  The  first  and  most  effective  of  these  is  the  sphincter,  which  I  have 
already  described.  The  second  consists  in  a  peculiar  relation  between  the  maxillary 
bone  and  the  duct.  The  antero-lateral  surface  of  the  bone  is  somewhat  rounded, 
and  the  duct  being  confined  at  the  base  of  the  bone,  and  also  perfectly  fixed  at  its 
junction  with  the  fang,  it  happens  that  when  the  fang  tooth  lies  flexed  in  the 
mouth,  the  maxillary  portion  of  the  duct  is  stretched  over  the  rounded  shoulder 
of  bone  upon  which  it  rests,  thus  flattening,  and  closing  its  canal  more  or  less 
completely. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  abrupt  curve  of  the  duct  under  the  eye,  has, 
also,  a  mechanical  value.  First,  as  an  additional  means  of  interrupting  the  flow  of 
venom,  when  the  fang  is  not  in  use,  and,  second,  as  a  provision  for  preventing 
injury  to  the  duct,  when,  during  the  action  of  flxing  the  fang,  the  duct  is  drawn 
backward  by  the  muscles,  and  forward  by  the  sudden  and  momentary  flexion  of 
the  fang,  which  occurs  at  this  time.  Under  these  two  forces,  the  bend  in  the  duct 
is  temporarily  obliterated. 

The  power  with  which  the  venom  is  ejected  from  the  tooth,  depends  somewhat 
upon  the  amount  contained  in  the  gland  and  its  ducts.  When  the  snake  fails  to 
strike  the  object  aimed  at,  the  poison  is  sometimes  projected  several  feet.  In  one 
case  which  is  known  to  me,  it  was  thrown  into  the  eye  of  a  man  standing  five  or 
six  feet  from  the  snake,  when  it  struck  upwards  at  a  stick  held  above  its  coil.-^ 


*  For  an  account  of  many  facts  in  connection  with  snakes,  whicli  are  of  popular  scientific  interest,  bat 
remote  from  my  present  subject,  the  reader  will  do  well  to  consult  Professor  Leconte's  paper,  Shaw's 
Zoology,  the  various  Encyclopedia  articles,  and  the  memoir  of  Prof.  Dumeril,  to  which  I  have  already 
referred. 

The  great  tenacity  of  life  on  the  part  of  snakes,  is  alluded  to  by  several  of  these  authors,  and  is 
well  known  in  the  form  of  a  very  singular  popular  belief  It  is  certainly  very  remarkable  in  the  Rattle- 
snake, whose  reflex  motions  are  admirably  retained  for  some  hours  after  decapitation,  and  occasionally 
are  seen  as  late  as  the  36th  hour.  At  this  late  period,  they  consist  in  wave-like  movements,  which  run 
from  the  tail  upwards,  and  are  most  readily  excited  by  pinching  the  parts  about  the  cloaca.  Immediately 
after  the  head  has  been  cut  off,  the  body  writhes  slowly  along  the  floor,  or,  if  hung  up,  returns  on  itself, 
twining  the  pendant  trunk  around  the  tail.  If,  when  the  body  is  entirely  fresh,  we  seize  the  tail,  the 
headless  trunk  frequently  returns  on  itself,  in  the  effort  to  strike  the  offending  hand.  Occasionally,  this 
movement  is  so  perfectly  executed,  that  the  bleeding  and  headless  trunk  smites  the  operator's  hand  before 
it  can  be  withdrawn.  In  one  or  two  instances,  persons  who  were  ignorant  of  the  possibility  of  this 
movement,  have  been  so  terrified  at  the  blow  which  has  greeted  them,  as  to  faint  on  the  spot.  To  hold 
thus  the  headless  snake,  has  been  made  a  test  of  firmness  in  some  parts  of  the  West ;  and  few  have  been 
found  composed  enough  to  retain  the  tail  until  the  innocent,  but  ghastly  stump,  struck  the  hand.  Indeed, 
any  one  who  may  try  this  little  experiment,  will  discover  that  it  is  no  easy  task  to  keep  a  steady  gi-asp  upon 
the  tail,  even  when,  in  ineffectual  efforts,  the  bleeding  neck  is  thrown  towards  the  irritated  parts,  but  does 
not  fully  succeed  in  reaching  it.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that,  while  the  person  whose  nerves  are  thus 
tried,  looks  at  the  snake,  he  can  scarcely  ever  so  control  himself  as  to  be  unmoved ;  but,  if  he  close  his 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  25 

The  study  of  the  complicated  mechanism  which  we  have  endeavored  to  explain, 
will  aid  us  in  understanding  several  points  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  bite 
of  the  Rattlesnake. 

It  must  be  perfectly  apparent  that  in  a  sequence  of  movements  so  elaborate,  it 
will  occasionally  happen  that,  from  a  failure  in  some  one  of  the  essential  motions, 
the  ultimate  purpose  of  the  whole  will  be  interfered  with.  Thus,  it  sometimes 
chances  that  the  serpent  miscalculates  the  distance,  and  fails  from  this  cause.  Or, 
again,  when  the  object  aimed  at  is  very  near,  the  initial  force  of  the  blow  is 
lost,  and  the  tooth  does  not  enter;  no  uncommon  occurrence,  where  the  animal 
struck  is  an  old  dog,  with  a  tough  skin.  Again,  if  the  upper  jaw  be  not  elevated 
sufficiently,  the  fangs  are  sometimes  driven  backwards,  by  the  force  of  the  for- 
ward impulse,  as  they  touch  the  part  attacked,  and  the  venom  is  then  apt  to  escape 
between  the  tooth  and  the  covering  mucous  cloak.  Upon  one  occasion,  having 
allowed  a  small  snake  to  strike  a  dog,  the  former  became  entangled,  owing  to  the 
hooked  teeth  of  the  lower  maxillary  bone  having  caught  in  the  skin.  Upon 
examining  the  snake  closely,  the  dog  being  held,  I  found  that  the  convexity  of  the 
fangs  lay  against  the  skin,  on  which  were  thrown  one  or  two  drops  of  venom.  On 
removing  the  snake,  and  inspecting  the  part  struck,  I  could  find  no  fang  wound, 
although  the  skin  was  visibly  torn  by  the  smaller  teeth.  I  have  seen  the  Rattle- 
snake strike  with  great  apparent  ferocity,  a  number  of  times,  when  I  have  been 
unable  to  discover  any  fang  wound  whatsoever;  and  this  has  taken  place,  occa- 
sionally, with  small  animals,  such  as  the  rabbit,  which  must  have  been  seriously 
affected  by  even  a  small  amount  of  venom. 

It  scarcely  ever  happens  that  an  animal  is  bitten,  without  a  part  of  the  injected 
venom  being  cast  on  the  skin,  near  the  wound  made  by  the  fangs.  This  wasted 
material  probably  escapes  from  the  duct,  where  it  is  in  apposition  with  the  lower 
opening  of  the  fang  canal,  and  may  be  merely  that  excess  of  fluid  which  the  fang 
cannot  carry.  In  some  cases,  however,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  relations  of 
the  fang  and  the  duct  are  so  disturbed,  that  the  venom  never  enters  the  tooth  at 
all.  It  is  certainly  true,  as  has  been  already  stated,  and  as  Dr.  Wyman  has  shown, 
that  the  fang  must  be  fully  erected  in  order  that  the  duct  shall  be  so  firmly  held 
in  contact  with  the  fang,  as  to  insure  the  passage  of  the  venom  through  this  latter 
organ. 

Finally,  it  sometimes  happens,  that  the  blow  is  given,  the  fang  enters,  and  from 
the  quick  starting  of  the  animal  injured,  or  from  some  other  interrupting  cause,  it 
is  withdrawn  so  soon  that  the  larger  portion  of  the  poison  is  thrown  harmless  upon 
the  surface  near  the  wound.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  resulting  symptoms 
are,  of  course,  trifling;  and  how  well  such  an  occurrence  would  be  calculated  to 
deceive  the  observer,  who  emploj'ed  an  antidote  in  a  like  case,  can  be  readily 
conceived. 


eyes  or  look  away,  the  source  through  which  the  involantary  start  of  alarm,  or  nervousness,  is,  so  to 
speak,  dictated,  appears  to  be  cut  off,  and  the  intellectual  and  memorial  recognition  of  the  snake's  powers 
is  not  sufficiently  lively  to  overcome  the  force  of  will  which  is  exerted  to  retain  the  grasp. 
4 


26  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

When  speaking  of  the  difficulties  which  surround  the  study  of  antidotes  to 
serpent  poison,  we  shall  return  again  to  this  subject.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  have 
pointed  out  such  of  the  fallacies  as  are  due  to  a  want  of  exact  knowledge  of  the 
mechanism  concerned  in  producing  the  poisoned  wound. 

The  minute  details,  here  given,  of  the  mechanism  of  the  bite,  are  collected  from 
many  sources  already  mentioned,  and  are  carefully  corrected  by  numerous,  original 
observations,  dissections,  and  experimental  demonstrations  of  the  mode  in  which 
different  muscles  acted  under  galvanic  stimulus,  applied  after  decollation  and 
removal  of  the  skin.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  it  is  the  only  full  account  of  the  mode 
in  which  the  bite  is  given,  and  of  the  parts  played  by  the  different  organs  and 
tissues  concerned. 


OF    THE    VENOM   OF  THE    RATTLESNAKE.  27 


CHAPTER   IV. 
THE   PHYSICAL  AND   CHEMICAL   CHARACTERS   OF   THE   VENOM. 

The  venom,  the  injection  of  which  is  the  sole  object  of  the  mechanism  we 
have  been  considering,  will  now  claim  our  attention.  In  my  own  researches,  I 
have  felt  seriously  the  want  of  statements  as  to  the  manipulation  and  mechanical 
means  employed  by  preceding  observers,  when  handling,  and  otherwise  using,  their 
snakes.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  to  place  the  reader  upon  the  "same  logical 
ground  with  myself,  by  giving  him  every  known  condition  and  accompaniment  of 
each  observation,  I  have,  in  all  cases,  described  minutely  the  whole  manual  of 
each  experiment.  Where  these  details  would  have  confused  the  statements  of 
results,  I  have  placed  them  in  the  form  of  notes. 

It  would  have  been  an  easy  task  to  swell  this  Essay  to  an  imposing  bulk,  by 
quoting  throughout  all  the  comparative  results  obtained  by  those  who  have  expe- 
rimented on  venomous  snakes,  other  than  the  Crotalus.  So  full  a  summary  would 
not  be  without  use  and  interest;  but,  since  the  mass  of  these  researches  have  but 
little  value,  I  have  contented  myself  with  the  briefest  relation  of  the  opinions  of 
others,  where  they  did  not  directly  concern  the  rattlesnake.  My  main  object  has 
been  to  present,  with  brevity,  my  own  results,  as  regards  the  Crotalus,  with  such 
illustration,  contrast,  and  comment,  derived  from  the  works  of  others,  as  seemed 
to  me  essential  to  this  purpose. 

Amount  of  Venom  in  the  Duds. — The  amount  of  venom  contained  at  any  one 
time  in  the  ducts  of  the  poison  gland,  varied  with  the  size  of  the  snake,  and  the 
period  which  had  elapsed  since  the  last  bite.  I  have  again  and  again  collected 
the  venom,  and  have  found  that  serpents  of  from  three  to  four  feet  long  rarely  threw 
out  more  than  from  two  to  four  drops,  after  the  first  ejection  had  taken  place. 
When  perfectly  fresh,  healthy,  and  undisturbed  for  some  weeks  in  summer,  the  first 
gush  of  their  venom  was  sometimes  astonishingly  large.  A  snake  which  had  served 
as  a  show  in  Washington,  reached  me  in  a  box  with  a  glass  top,  which  was  firmly 
fixed  by  screws.  In  all  probability  this  snake  had  been  several  weeks  without  using 
its  fangs.^     It  was  secured  as  usual,  and  the  lip  of  a  cup  placed  in  its  mouth.     It 


^  Manipulation. — The  authors  who  have  written  upon  serpents,  have  usually  obtained  their  venom 
by  killing  the  animal,  and  compressing  the  gland  (Fontana),  or  by  anaesthetizing  it  with  chloro- 
form (Burnett),  and  then  exerting  pressure,  until  the  fluid  exuded  through  the  duct.  Where  snakes  are 
abundant,  the  first  method  is  perhaps  the  best,  if  the  head  be  cut  oflf  rapidly  and  suddenly,  without 


28  PHYSIOLOGY   AND    TOXICOLOGY 

struck  at  once  with  the  right  fang,  but  missing  the  cup,  poured  a  large  amount  of 
venom  into  its  own  mouth.     The  left  fang  struck  an  instant  aftei',  and  threw  into 


allowing  tlie  snake  to  bite  at  any  object,  and  thus  exhaust  its  venom.     Where  the  snakes  are  not  easily 
replaced,  this  plan  is  plainly  not  economical. 

■  Others  have  allowed  the  snake  to  bite  upon  soft  substances  which  imbibed  the  venom  readily,  and 
from  which  it  could  be  removed  by  water  (Bonaparte).  The  methods  which,  after  long  practice,  I  have 
found  most  available,  I  will  detail  here,  after  describing  the  various  means  which  I  have  found  useful  in 
securing  the  snakes  for  experiment,  or  in  removing  them  from  box  to  box. 

In  moving  snakes,  it  is  customary  to  employ  long-handled  tongs,  or  forceps,  which  are  apt  to  pinch 
and  otherwise  injure  them.  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using  for  this  purpose,  a  bar  of  wood  four  feet 
long,  and  cut  off  at  the  end,  so  as  to  present  a  shghtly  roughened  surface,  one  and  a  half  inches  square. 
On  one  side  of  the  end,  a  piece  of  soft  and  pliant  leather  strap  was  nailed  securely.  This  strap  was 
then  carried  across  the  end  of  the  bar,  and  through  a  flat  staple  upon  the  side  opposite  to  that  on  which 
the  strap  was  fastened.  A  stout  cord,  attached  to  the  strap  above  the  staple,  was  held  in  the  operator's 
hand.  To  use  this  simple  instrument,  the  strap  was  drawn  down,  so  as  to  form  a  loop,  which  was  easily 
slipped  over  the  head  of  a  snake,  and  there  tightened  by  drawing  on  the  cord.  Where  it  was  desirable 
merely  to  secure  the  venom,  the  loop  was  shpped  over  the  head  and  drawn  closely  around  the  neck. 

Thus  prepared,  the  snake  was  placed  on  the  table  and  retained  by  an  assistant,  while  the  operator 
obtained  the  venom.  When  it  was  desirable  to  have  an  animal  bitten  without  placing  it  in  the  cage,  the 
loop  was  carried  to  the  middle  of  the  snake's  body,  and  it  was  thus  allowed  movement  enough  to  enable 
it  to  draw  back  and  strike.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  during  these  manipulations,  the  utmost  caution 
is  necessary  to  avoid  accident. 

As  it  is  sometimes  essential  to  detain  the  snake  on  the  table  for  some  time,  without  being  forced  to 
employ  a  person  to  guard  it,  I  devised  a  little  apparatus,  which,  although  imperfect,  answered  my  ends 
well  enough.  A  box,  about  four  inches  square,  and  thirty-six  inches  long,  was  divided  lengthwise,  and 
arranged  with  hinges  so  as  to  close  readily.  The  two  sections  were  deeply  grooved,  so  that  where  the 
sides  of  the  box  met,  the  grooves  formed  a  tube  large  enough  to  receive  the  body  of  a  serpent  five  feet  in 
length.  The  large  end  of  the  box  was  fitted  with  a  sliding  door  which  could  be  secured  by  a  wooden 
wedge  driven  in  behind  it.  The  lower  edge  of  the  door  was  made  concave,  and  a  piece  of  leather  was 
tacked  across  the  concavity,  designed  to  press  on  the  snake's  neck,  and  secure  without  injuring  it. 

To  employ  this  arrangement,  the  box  was  closed  and  the  door  raised,  a  cord  having  been  previously 
run  through  the  central  tube.  This  cord  bore  on  its  extremity  a  loop  which  was  thrown  over  the  tail  of 
the  snake,  and  carried  up  between  three  and  four  inches.  To  effect  this  manoeuvre,  I  was  usually  obliged 
to  hold  the  snake  down  with  a  long  stick  notched  at  the  end.  The  serpent  being  thus  noosed,  the  loop 
was  tightened,  and  an  assistant  tilted  the  box  over  the  cage,  and  rapidly  drew  the  snake  backwards  into 
the  tube,  while  a  second  person  standing  in  front,  guided  the  snake  with  a  long  rod. 

As  soon  as  the  tail  appeared  at  the  small  end  of  the  box,  it  was  secured  by  the  assistant,  and  the 
looped  string  which  held  it  was  wound  around  a  nail.  At  this  instant,  the  head  sometimes  retreated  into 
the  box.  After  waiting  a  moment,  it  usually  reappeared  again,  and  was  then  seized  with  a  pair  of  long 
forceps,  and  held  while  the  door  was  pushed  down  on  the  neck,  and  made  fast  with  the  wedge.  When 
the  snake  was  small,  it  sometimes  contrived  to  turn  around  in  the  box  before  the  tail  emerged,  and  thus 
reverse  its  desired  position.  This  occurrence  twice  exposed  the  operator  to  great  danger.  It  was  finally 
provided  against  by  the  aid  of  a  large  cork,  which  was  strung  upon  the  cord,  and  was  used  to  close  the 
small  end  of  the  tube,  when  the  snake  was  of  a  size  to  make  it  possible  for  it  to  turn  in  the  tube. 
When  the  snake  was  thus  properly  imprisoned,  it  could  be  placed  on  the  table  and  studied  to  great 
advantage,  while  it  was  still  able  to  bite  with  sufBcient  vigor. 

At  various  times  I  have  employed  all  the  methods  of  procuring  venom,  which  I  have  enumerated 
at  the  commencement  of  this  note.  I  have  finally  laid  aside  all  but  the  plan  of  stupefying  the  snake  by 
chloroform.  This  is  accomplished  by  seizing  the  snake  about  the  middle  with  the  looped  staff,  and 
placing  it  on  the  table.  An  assistant  then  controls  the  head  and  neck,  by  confining  the  latter  with  a 
notched  stick,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  slips  over  the  head  a  glass  vessel  about  two  inches  wide,  and 
containing  at  the  closed  end  a  sponge  soaked  in  chloroform.     The  snake  breathes  for  a  time  with  only 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  29 

the  cup  fifteen  drops  of  venom.  This  is  the  largest  quantity  which  I  have  ever 
seen  ejected  by  natural  process.  In  a  subsequent  attempt,  the  next  day,  this 
serpent,  which  bit  eagerly,  threw  out  only  one  or  two  drops  from  each  fang.  The 
snake  was  fifty-three  inches  long,  and  weighed  two  pounds  four  ounces. 

It  is  difiicult  to  compare  the  amount  of  venom  ejected  by  the  Crotalus,  with  that 
excreted  by  the  Viper,  and  the  Naja,  since,  although  both  EusselP  and  Fontana^ 
speak  on  this  point,  they  seem  to  have  secured  the  poison  from  the  exsected  gland, 
or,  at  least,  by  pressure  after  death,  and  they  are,  moreover,  silent  as  to  the  length 
and  weight  of  the  animals  examined. 

Jeter^  states  that  the  enlarged  duct  at  the  base  of  the  poison  gland  will  hold 
usually  about  ten  drops,  when  distended  with  accumulated  poison. 

In  four  snakes  I  filled  the  duct  and  gland  with  water.  The  injection  was  made 
by  introducing  a  small  syringe  into  the  duct  itself  outside  of  the  gland.  The  fluid 
was  afterwards  expressed  from  the  gland,  and  measured.  In  place  of  estimating 
the  fluid  by  the  gross  plan  of  dropping  it,  I  employed  the  following  means :  A 
narrow  tube  was  graduated,  so  that  each  division  represented  a  drop  of  distilled 
water.  The  point  being  drawn  to  a  fine  capillary  .termination,  enabled  me  to  col- 
lect, by  gentle  suction,  the  venom,  or  other  fluid,  even  when  it  was  spread  over  a 
rough  surface,  or  accidentally  spilled. 

In  the  accompanying  table,  I  have  given  the  weight  and  length  of  the  serpents 
used,  and  the  amount  in  water-drops  which  a  single  gland  in  each  snake  was  capa- 
ble of  containing. 

No.  1.  C.  Durissus.     Length''  18  inches.     Weight  9J  oz.     Capacity  of  gland  11  drops. 
No.  2.    "        "  "         25      "  "       18    "  "  "      19     " 

No.  3.    "        "  "        49i    "  "  3  lbs.  2  oz.       "  "      29     " 

Color  of  Venom. — The  color  of  the  venom  varied  from  a  pale  emerald  green  to 
orange  and  straw  color.  Where  the  poison  had  remained  a  long  time  in  the  gland, 
it  was  deeper  in  hue  than  when  its  ejection  followed  rapidly  upon  its  formation. 

I  have  also  observed  that  in  some  snakes,  it  was  uniformly  of  a  darker  color 


a  few  inches  of  lung  which  lie  in  front  of  the  stick,  but  as  it  becomes  more  insensible,  the  pressure  of 
the  stick  is  removed,  and  the  strap  of  the  staff  loosened.  About  twenty  minutes  are  required  to  com- 
plete the  process.  If  it  is  then  found  that  the  lower  jaw  hangs  relaxed  when  opened,  the  neck  is  seized 
firmly,  the  fangs  caught  on  a  saucer  edge,  and  the  glands  stripped  from  behind  forwards  by  pressure  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger.  The  venom  usually  escapes  alongside  of  the  fang,  from  under  the  mucous 
cloak.  To  secure  all  of  the  available  venom,  it  is  best  to  wash  the  fang  and  the  vagina  dentis  with  the 
aid  of  a  little  water,  and  a  pipette ;  but  one  objection  can  be  urged  against  this  method.  One  snake  in 
every  four  died  within  from  two  to  five  days,  and  this  after  apparent  recovery  from  the  effects  of  the 
chloroform.  It  is  not  impossible  that  too  severe  a  compression  of  the  venom  glands  may  produce  rup- 
ture of  its  substance,  and  consequent  blood-poisoning.  This,  however,  is  but  conjecture ;  and  I  have 
not  further  examined  the  subject  experimentally. 

*  Russell  on  the  Poison  Serpents  of  India,  p.  40. 

=  Fontana  on  Poisons,  Trans,  by  J.  Skinner.     Loud.  ITST,  vol.  i.  2T'7 — 28T. 

^  Poisoned  Wounds,  etc.,  a  Report  of  a  Committee  to  the  Med.  Assoc,  of  Missouri,  by  A.  F.  Jeter, 
M.D.,  p.  10. 

'  Not  inclusive  of  the  rattles. 


30  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

than  in  others ;  but  of  the  cause  of  this  difference  I  know  nothing,  nor  am  I  able 
to  associate  an  increased  virulency  with  any  particuLir  hue  of  the  poison. 

Fontana^  describes  the  color  of  the  yeuom  of  the  Viper  as  yellow.  Jeter-  speaks 
of  the  Crotalus  poison  as  being  more  frequently  of  a  greenish  tint,  though  some- 
times yellowish.  Russell  gives  no  information  as  to  the  color  of  Cobra  venom, 
or  that  of  other  East  India  serpents. 

Specific  Grai-iiy. — On  the  subject  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  venom,  all  authors 
are  silent,  usually  contenting  themselves  with  the  statement  that  it  is  heavier  than 
water. 

As  it  is  very  difficult  to  collect  at  any  one  time  enough  of  the  venom  to  admit 
of  the  use  of  the  specific  gravity  bottle,  I  was  obliged  to  resort  to  other  means. 

Having  prepared  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water,  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1030, 
I  threw  into  it  with  a  pipette,  a  drop  of  pure  venom.  Finding  that  it  sunk 
rapidly,  I  increased  the  strength  of  the  sugar  solution,  until  the  venom  was 
found  to  float  in  it  midway.  This  rather  coarse  means  enabled  me  to  estimate 
the  average  specific  gravity  of  the  clear  poison  at  104-4.  The  specimen  employed 
came  from  a  snake  which  had  been  unmolested  for  several  weeks.  To  test  the 
matter  further,  I  collected  some  poison  from  the  same  snake  on  the  two  following 
days,  obtaming  but  a  drop  or  two  on  each  occasion.  The  first  of  these  specimens 
had  a  specific  weight  of  1030.  The  second  was  estimated  at  1035,  so  that  it  is 
probable  that  the  poison  becomes  concentrated  by  long  residence  in  the  gland. 

The  method  of  examination  here  employed  is,  of  course,  open  to  criticism,  and 
can  furnish  only  approximate  calculations ;  but,  as  I  know  of  no  other-  facts  in  this 
direction,  I  do  not  deem  it  proper  to  omit  even  the  imperfect  results  thus  attained. 

Physical  Characters. — The  venom  examined  by  me  was  always  more  or  less  glu- 
tinous. In  the  Yiper,  it  so  nearly  resembled  a  gum,  that  it  was  described  by  Fon- 
tana  as  such.-^  That  of  the  Crotalus  dries  very  slowly,  and  is  as  adhesive  as  thick 
solutions  of  gum-acacia.  When  completely  desiccated,  it  resembled  dried  albumen, 
and  presented  itself  in  thin  yellow  and  transparent  layers,  traversed  by  number- 
less cracks  which  in  the  Viper-poison  were  supposed  by  Mead  to  be  the  edges  of 
crystals  peculiar  to  the  secretion. 

Whether  fluid  or  dried,  the  poison  of  the  Crotalus  was  devoid  of  taste,  and  also 
of  smell,  unless  it  had  undergone  putrefaction,  to  which,  like  other  albuminoid 
solutions,  it  is  liable.  I  have  tasted  the  rattlesnake  poison  repeatedly,  once  by 
design,  and  several  times  through  accident,  when  engaged  in  collecting  it  by  suck- 
ing it  into  a  pipette. 

I  could  not  perceive  that  it  had  the  slightest  taste  or  acridity.  Mead  alone 
describes  the  venom  of  the  viper  as  acrid  and  caustic  to  the  tongue.  Fontana 
could  discern  no  taste  in  it,  but  thought  that  it  benumbed  the  part  on  which  it 
was  placed.     Brainard*  states  that  the  Crotalus  venom  has  '•  a  peculiar  and  dis- 


'  Fontana  on  Poisons,  YI.  p.  12.     Skinner's  Translation. 

'^  Jeter  on  Poisoned  Wonnds,  p.  20. 

^  Fontana,  p.  263,  vol.  i.     Skinner's  Trausl.,  where  the  Abbe  examines  and  disproves  this  idea. 

*  Braiuard,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Annual  Report  of,  for  185i,  p.  125. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  31 

agreeable  odor,  and  is  said  to  have  a  pungent  taste."  No  authority  is  given  for 
the  latter  statement.  Jeter^  speaks  of  it  as  tasteless,  but  ascribes  to  it  the  power 
to  benumb  the  tongue  when  a  drop  is  placed  on  that  organ.  I  can  only  add 
that  I  have  never  experienced  the  sensation  in  question.  As  respects  Prof. 
Brainard's  account  of  its  odor,  it  is  proper  to  observe  that,  although,  as  I  have 
said,  the  venom  was  usually  free  from  smell,  specimens  which  had  remained  a  long 
time  in  the  gland,  sometimes  had  the  peculiar  animal  odor  of  the  snake  itself. 

Beaction  of  the  Venom. — The  subject  of  the  acidity  or  alkalinity  of  the  venom  of 
the  European  viper,  was  very  early  a  matter  of  keen  dispute.  Mead  and  James 
both  asserted  that  it  reddened  litmus,  and  was  of  a  distinctly  acid  reaction.  Mead 
afterwards  disavowed  this  idea,  and  agreed  with  Fontana  in  calling  it  neutral. 
Jussieu,  who  followed  Mead  in  his  earlier  view,  also  agreed  with  him  in  recom- 
mending the  local  and  general  treatment  by  volatile  alkali,  in  the  hope  of  neutral- 
izing the  acid  in  question.  Dr.  Brickell,^  of  Savannah,  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  to  examine  the  reaction  of  rattlesnake  poison.  This  observer  found  that 
the  venom  was  strongly  acid,  and  reddened  litmus  paper.  Dr.  Harlan,^  of  Phila- 
delphia, also  describes  it  as  invariably  acid.  Brainard,  Barton,  Jeter,  and  others, 
do  not  seem  to  have  examined  the  question. 

My  own  observations  on  this  subject  were  very  numerous,  and  were  directed, 
not  only  towards  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  venom  was  acid,  but  also  as  to 
the  normal  reaction  of  the  snake's  mouth,  when  free  from  venom. 

I  find  in  my  notes  the  record  of  eight  observations,  in  all  of  which  the  venom 
reddened  litmus  paper  more  or  less  distinctly.  In  a  great  many  unrecorded  obser- 
vations I  obtained  no  other  result.  It  was  uniformly  acid,  and  this  reaction  was 
common  to  all  specimens  of  the  poison,  whether  moist  or  dry,  dark  colored  or 
pale  in  tint.  One  of  these  specimens  was  two  years  old,  and,  when  placed  on 
litmus  paper,  and  touched  with  a  drop  of  water,  it  reddened  the  paper  distinctly. 
I  do  not  think  that  the  venom  increases  in  acidity  upon  being  kept ;  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  the  acid  of  the  venom  appear  to  be  volatile,  since  litmus  once 
reddened  by  it,  kept  the  red  hue,  until  exposed  to  an  alkali,  which  restored  the 
original  blue  tint  of  the  test  paper.  That,  finally,  the  acid  was  not  due  to  changes 
which  occurred,  exterior  to  the  body  of  the  snake,  was  shown  by  the  constancy  of 
the  acid  reaction  in  specimens  obtained  by  allowing  the  serpent  to  bite  upon  test 
paper  folded  so  thickly  as  to  arrest  the  fang,  and  receive  the  poison  directly 
from  it. 

The  reaction  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  was  almost  as  consistently 
alkaline  as  that  of  the  venom  was  acid.  This  observation  of  qourse  suggested  the 
possibility  of  neutralization  taking  place,  when  the  poison  accidentally  reached 
the  mouth.  It  was  found,  indeed,  that  litmus  reddened  by  the  venom  became 
blue  again  when  left  in  the  serpent's  jaws;  but,  although  the  acid  was  neutralized. 


*  Jeter,  p.  20. 

=  Brickell,  Med.  Depository,  conducted  by  S.  L.  Mitchill,  M.  D.,  and  E.  Miller,  M.  D.,  New  York, 
1805,  second  hexade,  vol.  ii.  p.  441. 
'  Harlan,  Med.  and  Phys.  Researches,  1835,  p.  502. 


32  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

the  poisonous  properties  of  the  fluid  remained  unaltered,  as  I  shall  have  frequent 
occasion  to  demonstrate. 

The  want  of  agreement  among  observers,  as  to  the  reaction  of  viper  poison,  is 
such,  that  the  point  in  question  should  be  re-examined  by  some  competent  person. 
Prince  Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte,^  to  whom  we  owe  a  chemical  analysis  of  viper 
poison,  does  not  appear  to  have  touched  the  matter,  and  contents  himself  with 
stating  that  echidnine  or  viperine,  the  essential  principle,  is  neutral,  making  no 
allusion  to  an  acid,  when  detailing  the  other  ingredients  present. 

Decomposition  of  the  Venom. — Like  most  albuminoid  matters,  the  venom  entered 
into  decomposition  when  long  kept  in  the  moist  state,  but  although  it  then  deve- 
loped vibriones,  and  even  low  confervoid  growths,  and  smelt  most  horribly,  it  was 
still  poisonous.  How  long  it  would  retain  its  virulence  under  these  circumstances, 
and  what  extent  of  putrefactive  change  might  be  needed  to  destroy  this  quality, 
I  cannot  state  from  my  own  experience. 

Many  specimens  of  venom  let  fall,  on  repose,  a  white  sediment,  which,  in  a 
few  cases,  was  very  abundant.  The  clear  poison  presented  no  points  of  interest 
when  viewed  microscopically.  When  dry,  it  cracked  like  dried  white  of  egg, 
but  under  no  management  has  it  afforded  me  crystals.  My  friend  Prof.  Ham- 
mond^ has  been  more  successful,  and  has  obtained  crystals  by  diluting  the  venom 
of  the  G.  covfluentiis,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  dry  slowly,  sheltered  by  a 
cover-glass.  (Fig.  11.)  The  crystals  thus  formed,  resembled  those  of  ammoniaco- 
magnesian  phosphate,  which  affect  the  feathery  form  of  crystallization. 

Fiff.  11. 


The  white  deposit  was  composed  chiefly  of  amorphous,  granular  matter,  with  a 
few  pavement  epithelial  cells,  compound  granular  bodies  of  oleaginous  character, 
and  finally  of  the  peculiar  masses  known  and  described  as  colloid  bodies,^  and  in 


*  Prince  Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte,  Gazetta  Toscana,  delle  Scienze  Medico-fisiche,  Anno  primo,  Firenze, 
1843.  I  have  been  unable  to  find  this  memoir,  and  have  been  forced  to  employ  Orfila's  quotation  of  his 
results.     Orfila,  Tox.  Gen.,  p.  844. 

^  Fig.  11  is  taken  from  Prof.  Hammond's  drawing,  which  he  kindly  put  at  my  disposal. 

^  Wedl,  Pathological  Histology,  Trans,  of  the  Sydenham  Society,  pp.  38,  264,  21 1,  etc. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  33 

appearance  so  mucli  resembling  starch  granules,  as  to  have  induced  me  to  neglect 
them  at  first,  and  to  suppose  them  to  be  really  that  substance,  accidentally 
present.  These  corpuscular  bodies  were  marked  with  delicate  radiating  lines. 
Iodine  stained  them  of  a  yellowish-brown.  They  were  doubtless  due  to  some 
concrete  modification  of  albuminous  material. 

Occasionally,  when  the  snake  had  been  seriously  maltreated,  the  venom  contained 
more  or  less  blood. 

Chemical  Examinatinn. — I  much  regret  having  been  unable  to  collect  the  venom 
of  the  Crotalus  in  such  amount  as  would  have  enabled  a  competent  chemist  to 
make  of  it  an  ultimate  analysis,  to  which  I  believe  it  has  never  yet  been  submitted. 

In  the  following  examination,  I  have  contented  myself  with  a  qualitative  ana- 
lysis, which,  although  not  so  perfect  as  I  could  have  desired,  appears  to  me  to  have 
thrown  some  light  on  this  novel  and  curious  subject. 

The  fresh  venom  of  the  Crotalus  begins  to  coagulate  at  140°  F.,  and  is  almost 
solid  at  160°.  The  mode  in  which  I  accomplished  this  observation  upon  minute 
amounts  of  venom,  without  desiccating  it,  will  be  found  detailed  in  the  account  of 
the  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  virulency  of  the  venom.-' 

When  a  drop  of  the  pure  poison  was  thrown  upon  platinum  foil  and  heated,  it 
boiled,  whitened,  and  at  last  became  charred  before  it  took  fire. 

When  a  drop  of  venom  was  thrown  into  cold  distilled  water,  it  fell  rapidly,  and 
presented  a  white  appearance,  which  became  marked,  as  it  dispersed  through  the 
fluid.  It  finally  dissolved  in  the  water,  without  residue.  This  phenomenon  of  the 
whitening  of  the  venom  in  water,  has  also  been  noticed  in  regard  to  fresh  white  of 
egg  similarly  treated. 

The  pure  venom  of  the  Crotalus  was  subjected  to  the  action  of  various  chemical 
reagents,  either  with  the  primary  object  of  learning  how  they  would  affect  it,  or 
with  the  purpose  of  observing  whether  or  not  they  altered  its  power  to  poison. 

Nitric  acid  threw  down  from  Crotalus  venom  a  dense  precipitate.  Added  in 
excess,  it  re-dissolved  the  larger  part  of  the  precipitate,  and  formed  a  thin  yellow- 
ish fluid,  in  which  floated  undissolved  minute  yellow  flocculi.  Liquor  ammonise, 
added  in  excess,  did  not  re-precipitate  the  dissolved  material. 

Chlorohydric  acid  threw  down  a  dense  white  precipitate,  and,  added  in  excess, 
completely  re-dissolved  it,  forming  a  solution  colorless,  or  of  a  pale  yellow,  from 
which  ammonia  in  excess  re-precipitated  the  dissolved  substance  in  opaque  white 
masses. 

Sulphuric  acid  threw  down  from  the  venom  a  white  precipitate,  which,  if  the 
acid  were  hastily  added,  or  if  heated,  became  yellow  or  brown. 

Acetic  acid  caused  no  precipitate  from  the  venom,  whether  added  to  it  in  large 
or  small  amount. 

Tannic  acid  produced  a  dense  white  precipitate,  which  proved  to  be  insoluble  in 
water,  and  in  an  excess  of  the  acid,  but  was  re-dissolved  on  the  addition  of  a  small 
amount  of  ammonia. 


*  These  observations  were  amply  verified  at  another  time,  when  larger  quantities  of  venom  were  used. 


34  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXIC-OLOGY 

Chlorine  water  caused  a  dense  precipitate.  A  solution  of  iodine  and  iodide  of 
potassium  caused  a  precipitate  which  redissolved  in  an  excess  of  the  reagent.'' 

Soda  and  potassa  had  no  visible  effect  on  the  venom. 

Ammonia  was  also  without  action  upon  it,  as  was  also  lime-water. 

Bichloride  of  mercury  gave  with  the  venom  a  dense  white  precipitate. 

Sulphate  of  soda  produced  a  dense  precipitate,  which  redissolved  on  the  addition 
of  water  in  excess.  The  precipitate  was,  therefore,  soluble  in  a  weak  solution 
of  the  salt  employed. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  in  like  manner,  caused  a  precipitate  which  proved  soluble 
in  an  excess  of  water,  as  in  the  last  observation. 

In  both  cases  the  precipitate  could  be  reproduced  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
the  salt  present,  and  again,  an  added  excess  of  water  was  competent  to  redissolve 
the  new  precipitate. 

Alcohol  invariably  produced  in  the  venom  a  heavy,  flocculent  precipitate,  which, 
when  carefully  dried,  turned  of  a  pale  yellow,  and  was  still  more  or  less  soluble  in 
water.  The  latter  fact  was  observed,  even  when  the  poison  had  been  kept  in 
alcohol  during  five  weeks.  I  have  also  examined  the  poison  found  in  the  ducts  of 
Kattlesnakes,  which  had  remained  in  alcohol  for  two  years  or  more.  It  proved  to 
be  very  slightly  soluble  in  water.  There  is  in  this  observation,  however,  a  cause 
of  error ;  since  in  snakes  which  die  violent  deaths,  the  whole  gland  is  often  filled 
with  blood,  so  that  the  coagulated  substance  in  the  ducts  can,  with  no  certainty, 
be  regarded  as  venom  alone;  unless  we  are  informed  very  fully  as  to  the  condition 
of  the  organs,  when  first  immersed  in  the  preserving  fluid.  This  question  is  one 
of  considerable  interest,  and  will  engage  our  attention  in  another  place. 

An  aqueous  solution  of  the  venom  was  evaporated  to  dryness.  A  drop  of  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  w^as  then  added,  and  the  mixture  treated  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  potassa  in  excess.  In  a  few  minutes  it  exhibited  the  violet 
color  characteristic  of  albuminous  matters  thus  tested. 

The  venom  was  next  examined  for  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  a  constituent  of 
human  saliva,  although  with  slight  expectation  of  detecting  it.  Five  drops  were 
tested  with  sulphate  of  sesquioxide  of  iron.  It  produced  a  heavy  white  precipitate, 
but  no  red  color  was  observed.  Seven  drops  of  the  venom  were  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  treated  with  the  same  salt  of  iron,  but  without  any  appearance  of  the 
red  hue  which  indicates  the  presence-  of  the  sulphocyanide  mentioned.  These 
examinations  w^ere  repeated  several  times  on  as  many  specimens  of  the  poison,  but 
always  with  a  negative  result.  From  the  small  amount  of  venom  employed,  they 
did  not  entirely  satisfy  me,  and  the  subject  may  still  repay  a  fuller  examination.  ■ 
At  present  it  is  only  safe  to  affirm  that  the  sulphocyanide,  if  it  exist  in  the  venom 
at  all,  can  only  be  present  in  a  very  minute  amount,  and  can  in  no  way  be  con- 
sidered as  a  causative  element,  in  the  production  of  the  symptoms  which  follow 
upon  the  insertion  of  the  venom  into  the  tissues  of  living  animals.^ 

»  Brainard's  antidote — lod.  potass,  grs.  sxx;  iodine  grs.  x;  water  gj. 

°  In  tlie  following  work  by  M.  Bernard:  Lecons  sur  les  Proprietes  Physiologiques,  et  les  Alterations 
Pathologiques  des  Liquides  de  I'Orgauisme,  vol.  ii.  p.  242,  he  says:  "Ainsi  on  a  dit  d'abord,  que  la 
presence  du  sulfocyanure  de  potassium  dans  la  salive,  rappelait  les  glands  a  venin  des  serpents  vemineux." 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  35 

'  Thus  far  we  have  only  learned,  from  the  preceding  details,  that  the  venom  of 
the  Crotalus  is  an  acid-fluid,  abounding  in  albuminous  matter,  and  yielding  preci- 
pitates, or  coagula,  with  certain  reagents. 

It  was  highly  probable,  for  various  reasons,  that  the  active  element  of  the  venom 
was  to  be  sought  in  the  albuminoid  compound  just  referred  to.  Accordingly,  the 
greatest  attention  was  paid  to  this  substance,  and  at  every  step  in  the  analysis 
the  coagula  and  filtered  solutions  were  studied  toxicologically,  as  well  as  chemically. 

Prince  Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte  has  given  us  the  only  analysis  of  a  snake  venom 
with  which  I  am  acquainted ;  it  is  that  of  the  viper.  I  have  been  unfortunate  in 
not  having  had  access  to  the  original  Essay  of  this  observer,  and  have  been  forced 
to  content  myself  with  such  analyses  of  his  paper  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  sys- 
tematic works  on  poisons,  and  in  one  of  M.  Bernard's  recent  volumes.^  Thus 
aided,  I  have  partially  followed  M.  Bonaparte's  method  of  analysis;  but  have  found 
it  insufficient  for  the  thorough  examination  of  rattlesnake  venom. 

The  observations  and  analyses  which  I  have  thus  introduced,  were  conducted  in 
the  following  manner  : — 

1st.  Ten  or  twelve,  drops  of  pure  Crotalus  venom  were  secured,  as  usual.  Of 
this,  a  minute  amount  was  employed  as  a  toxicological  test  of  the  activity  of  the 
specimen  about  to  be  studied. 

2d.  The  remainder  of  the  venom  was  mixed  with  two  drachms  of  cold  water,  and 
thoroughly  boiled  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  A  dense  coagulum  took  place,  and  settled 
quickly,  leaving  above  it  a  pearl-colored  fluid,  free  from  sedimentary  matter.  On 
shaking  the  test-tube,  so  as  to  mingle  the  coagulum  and  the  supernatant  fluid,  and 
then  injecting  one-half  into  the  breast  tissues  of  a  pigeon,  it  was  found  that  the 
mixture  proved  speedily  fatal.     Boiling  had  not  destroyed  its  power. 

3d.  The  remaining  half  of  the  mixture  (coagulum  and  fluid),  was  cast  on  a 
small  filter,  and  when  the  pearly  fluid  had  passed  through,  the  coagulum  which 
remained  was  carefully  washed,  drop  by  drop,  with  cold  water.  On  the  filter  was 
finally  left  the  white  coagulum,  thoroughly  washed ;  in  the  filtrate  were  all  the 
parts  of  the  venom  which  could  be  dissolved  either  in  cold  or  boiling  water. 

4  th.  The  toxicological  test  was  now  introduced,  to  decide  whether  the  poisoning 
activity  lay  in  the  clot  formed  by  heat,  or  in  the  separated  fluid.  Upon  numerous 
repetitions  of  this  observation,  it  invariably  happened  that  the  coagulum  was  inno- 
cent, and  that  the  pearly  supernatant  fluid,  with  the  washings  of  the  coagulum, 
was  a  deadly  poison.  The  experiments  were  made  as  usual,  by  injecting  the  venom 
into  the  breast  or  leg  tissues  of  healthy  pigeons. 

5th.  As  I  was  aware  that  alcohol  threw  down  all  of  the  albuminoid  elements  of 
venom,  it  occurred  to  me  that  it  might  also  precipitate  from  the  boiled  venom  the 
material  which  appeared  to  escape  the  coagulating  influence  of  the  heat.  Accord- 
ingly, a  considerable  quantity  of  venom,  about  fifteen  drops,  was  boiled,  in  half  an 
ounce  of  water.  When  the  coagulum  settled,  the  opalescent  supernatant  liquid  was 
decanted  with  care,  the  coagulum  washed  on  a  filter,  and  the  washings  mixed  with 


•  Orfila,  Toxicologie  Generale,  Art.  Vipere.    Bernard  CI.  Legons  sur  les  Effets  des  Substances  tosiqiies 
et  medieamenteuses.     Paris,  1857,  p.  393.     Nysten,  Diet,  de  Medecine,  Art.  Echidnine. 


36  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

the  liquid.  To  this  was  now  added  a  small  amount  of  alcohol  of  95  per  cent.  A 
cloud  of  a  white  and  granular  character  was  immediatelj^  seen  at  the  line  where  the 
alcohol  and  water  met.  Upon  this  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  the  alcohol  was  added, 
when  the  fluid  clouded  throughout,  and  a  white  precipitate  soon  settled  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  supernatant  alcohol  and  water  being  poured  off  and  carefully  evapo- 
rated at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.,  was  examined  toxicologically  as  usual.  The 
evaporation  was,  of  course,  carried  nearly  to  dryness,  so  as  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
killing  the  bird  with  alcohol.  No  poisonous  results  were  observed,  except  in  two 
cases,  where  the  alcohol  originally  used  proved  to  have  been  diluted  with  water, 
and  to  have  acted  as  a  partial  solvent  for  the  active  material.  It  is  necessary,  on 
this  account,  to  employ  the  strongest  alcohol. 

6th.  The  precipitate  caused  by  the  alcohol  was  washed  repeatedly  with  succes- 
sive portions  of  that  fluid,  and  allowed  to  settle.  Then  the  last  alcohol  used  to 
wash  it  was  removed  by  pipette,  and  the  precipitate  spread  on  a  plate  to  dry.  On 
testing  it  toxicologically,  it  was  found  to  be  actively  poisonous,  giving  rise,  even 
when  employed  in  minute  amount,  to  all  the  local  and  general  phenomena  of  Cro- 
talus  poisoning. 

The  material  thus  obtained,  was  of  a  pale  yellowish  tint  when  dried,  and  was 
perfectly  neutral  in  reaction.  It  dissolved  readily  enough  in  water,  cold  or  hot, 
and  its  aqueous  solutions  were  troubled  by  alcohol.  Its  nitrogenous  nature  was 
established  by  its  reaction  with  Millon's  test  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  with  the 
cupro-potassa  test.  As  it  appeared  to  me  to  be  the  active  toxicological  element  of 
the  venom,  I  propose  to  distinguish  it  by  the  name  of  Crotaline. 

It  seemed  from  the  statements  of  those  who  quote  Prince  Bonaparte's  method  of 
analysis  of  viper-poison  that  he  procured  the  essential  principle,  which  he  termed 
ecliidnine,  or  viperine,  in  the  following  manner :  The  venom  was  treated  with  an 
excess  of  alcohol,  and  filtered ;  the  residue  on  the  filter  being  well  washed  with 
fresh  portions  of  alcohol.  The  alcoholic  solution  was  evaporated  to  dryness,  and 
found  to  contain  a  coloring  matter,  and  a  small  amount  of  an  undetermined  sub- 
stance, which,  of  course,  was  soluble  in  alcohol.  The  coagulum  was  next  washed, 
drop  by  drop,  with  cold  water,  so  as  to  dissolve  the  echidnine,  and  leave  the 
"mucosine,"  become  now  insoluble  from  the  influence  of  the  alcohol.  The  echid- 
nine was  separated  from  the  aqueous  solution  by  evaporation.  In  all  essential 
particulars,  Echidnine  and  crotaline  are  alike.  Upon  repeating  and  varying  M. 
Bonaparte's  method  of  analysis,  I  found,  however,  some  discrepancy  of  results. 

Thus,  if  to  the  venom  of  the  Crotalus  an  excess  of  alcohol  be  added,  a  large 
precipitate  occurs.  In  some  instances,  all  of  this  precipitate  was  soluble  in  water ; 
in  other  cases,  a  small  proportion  remained  undissolved,  behaving  as  ov-albumen 
would  do  after  being  coagulated  by  alcohol.  Generally,  as  I  have  said,  the  bulk 
of  the  alcohol  precipitate  was  soluble  in  water.  The  aqueous  solution  thus  ob- 
tained could  be  coagulated  by  boiling,  so  as  to  throw  down  a  harmless  precipitate, 
and  to  leave  above  it  a  fluid  still  actively  venomous,  but  representing  in  its  dis- 
solved albuminoid  substance  but  a  small  part  of  the  nitrogenous  precipitate  caused 
by  the  alcohol  in  the  first  instance.  In  other  words,  the  aqueous  solution  of  the 
alcoholic  precipitate  behaved  in  the  presence  of  heat  exactly  like  the  diluted  venom 
itself. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  37 

On  reviewing  these  facts,  it  appears  that  in  Crotalus  venom,  1st,  alcohol  precipi- 
tates all  the  albuminoid  material,  innocent,  as  well  as  poisonous.  2a.  That  heat 
throws  down  from  diluted  venom  the  bulk  of  these  albuminous  compounds  in  an 
insoluble  and  harmless  form,  and  that  the  residual  water  still  contains  an  albumi- 
noid body  uncoagulable  by  heat,  but  precipitable  by  alcohol,  and  of  great  poisonous 
activity. 

Now,  the  yield  of  crotaline  from  the  plan  first  mentioned,  and  that  of  M.  Bona- 
parte, is  very  different.  So  much  larger  is  the  quantity  obtained  by  the  latter 
means,  that  I  cannot  help  suspecting  that,  besides  seizing  on  the  active  principle, 
the  water  also  takes  up  from  the  alcoholic  precipitate  a  certain  quantity  of  albumi- 
nous material  which  is  quite  innocent,  and  can  only  be  coagulated  by  a  heat  of 
160°  and  upwards. 

Besides  the  two  albuminoid  bodies,  whose  presence  in  venom  I  have  thus  made 
probable,  there  is  also  at  times  a  little  nitrogenous  matter  which  behaves  like  the 
ordinary  egg  albumen. 

The  ether  washings  of  dried  venom  I  found  to  contain  now  and  then  a  little  oil, 
which  was  only  to  be  detected  under  the  microscope.  As  in  M.  Bonaparte's 
analysis,  when  the  alcoholic  solution  was  evaporated,  it  was  found  to  contain  a 
small  quantity  of  uncrystalline  flakes  of  some  unknown  body,  tinged  yellow,  and 
dotted  here  and  there  with  specks  of  a  deeper  hue. 

Besides  these  elements,  we  have  also  a  small  amount  of  saline  constituents,  pro- 
bably chlorides  and  phosphates  of  alkalies.  The  determination  of  these  bodies 
seemed  to  be  of  no  great  moment  in  the  present  case,  and  I  have  therefore  failed 
to  study  them  with  minute  attention. 

We  have  thus  far  determined  that  the  venom  of  the  Eattlesnake  is  composed  of — 

1.  An  albuminoid  body.     Crotaline,  not  coagulable  by  heat  of  212°. 

2.  An  albuminoid  compound  coagulable  by  a  temperature  of  212°  F. 

3.  A  coloring  matter,  and  an  undetermined  substance,  both  soluble  in  alcohol. 

4.  A  trace  of  fatty  matter. 

5.  Salts,  chlorides,  and  phosphates. 

At  this  period  of  our  investigation  it  would  be  interesting  to  compare  the  venom 
more  carefully  with  the  ordinary  salivary  fluids,  a  step  which  is  rendered  necessary 
by  the  fact  that  De  Blainville  and  others  have  considered  the  venom  gland  as  the 
analogue  of  the  parotid,  and  the  venom  as  only  a  peculiar  salivary  fluid. 

Before  we  carry  on  such  a  comparison,  it  is  necessary  to  state  the  results  of  a 
number  of  experiments  and  observations,  which,  while  they  aid  us  in  elucidating 
the  present  branch  of  our  subject,  have  also  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
question  of  the  true  character  of  the  poison  of  the  venom.  We  shall  proceed, 
therefore,  to  the  statement  of  the  observations  in  question,  and  afterwards  to  the 
discussion  of  the  claims  of  the  poison  gland  and  its  secretion,  to  the  titles  of  salivary 
gland  and  saliva. 

If  the  poison  gland  is  a  salivary  gland  at  all,  it  is,  of  course,  from  its  anatomical 
relations  a  parotid  gland,  and  its  secretion  is  comparable  only  with  the  parotid 
secretion.  In  the  lack  of  information  as  to  the  nature  of  this  saliva  in  serpents 
generally,  we  can  only  compare  the  venom  with  the  parotid  saliva  of  the  horse, 


38  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

dog,  and  mau,  a  circumstance  which  necessai'ily  impairs  the  interest  and  value  of 
this  particuhir  branch  of  our  subject. 

Since  the  discovery  by  Leuchs,  of  the  power  of  saliva  to  convert  boiled  starch 
into  grape  sugar,  observers  have  been  undecided  as  to  whether  or  not  pure  parotid 
saliva  possesses  this  power.  The  weight  of  authority  at  present  is  undoubtedly 
against  it,  but  in  the  absence  of  any  positive  decision,  I  have  conceived  it  neces- 
sary to  learn  whether  or  not  the  supposed  venom  saliva  had  this  faculty. 

Exioeriment. — In  three  test  tubes  of  the  same  size,  was  placed  an  equal  amount 
of  boiled  starch-water,  in  which  I  had  failed  to  detect  the  presence  of  grape  sugar. 
To  the  first  of  these  were  added  three  drops  of  pure  venom.  To  the  second  were 
added  three  or  four  drops  of  mixed  saliva  from  my  own  mouth.  The  third  was 
left  without  any  addition,  and  all  were  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  78°  F. 

No.  I.  Venom  and  starch-water  was  examined  at  intervals,  but  gave  no  re- 
action with  the  cupro-potassa  test  until  forty-eight  hours  had  elapsed,  when  sugar 
was  found  to  be  present,  but  not  in  large  amount. 

No.  II.  Starch-water  and  saliva  contained  sugar  at  the  close  of  half  an  hour. 
Within  three  hours  the  sugar  was  present  in  abundance. 

No.  III.  Starch-water  alone  exhibited  no  traces  of  sugar  until  forty-eight  hours 
had  elapsed,  when  it  was  to  be  detected,  although  present  in  no  large  quantity. 

In  a  second  series  of  experiments,  results  so  nearly  similar  were  obtained,  that 
it  is  needless  to  relate  them  here. 

Since  it  has  been  asserted  by  Wright,  that  acid  saliva  does  not  possess  the  same 
converting  power  as  the  ordinary  alkaline  fluid,  and  as  the  venom  saliva  was  con- 
stantly acid,  I  repeated  the  experiments  with  the  following  modification. 

Experiment. — In  two  test  tubes  was  placed  about  half  an  ounce  of  thin  stai'ch- 
water.  To  the  first  were  added  four  drops  of  venom,  which  I  had  rather  more  than 
neutralized  with  potassa. 

The  second  I  left  without  this  addition,  and  exposed  them  both  to  a  temperature 
of  from  77°  to  87°  F.  At  the  close  of  twenty-four  hours,  neither  of  them  exhibited 
any  traces  of  sugar,  but  after  twenty-eight  hours,  sugar  was  present  in  the  venom 
tube  and  not  in  the  other.  These  experiments  were  also  repeated  on  subsequent 
occasions  with  like  results. 

I  conceive  that  we  have  a  right  to  infer  that  the  venom  has  no  peculiar  power 
to  convert  boiled  stai'ch  into  grape  sugar,  and  is,  in  this  respect,  almost  absolutely 
inactive. 

My  next  observations  were  directed  towards  ascertaining  whether  the  venom 
gland,  like  the  ordinary  salivary  glands,  would  yield  to  water  its  active  principles, 
and  so  give  rise  to  infusions,  in  each  case,  resembling  the  saliva  of  the  respective 
glands.  Thus,  since  M.  Bernard's  researches,  it  is  well  known  that  an  infusion  of 
the  submaxillary  or  parotid  glands  has  all  the  properties  of  the  normal  saliva  of 
these  organs.  According  to  this  author,  the  solid  matters  of  the  various  salivas 
are  constantly  deposited  in  the  glands,  and  are  rapidly  washed  out  of  them  by  a 
flow  of  thin  solvent  fluid  from  the  bloodvessels,  at  such  times  as  the  secretion 
may  be  needed.  If,  now,  the  solid  matter  of  the  venom  be  in  like  manner  a  con- 
stant portion  of  the  bulk  of  the  gland,  it  was  to  be  presumed  that  an  infusion  of 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  39 

the  gland  tissues  would  afford  a  considerable  amount  of  venomous  fluid,  manufac- 
tured, as  it  were,  artificially. 

This  question  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  queries : — 

1st.  Is  the  gland  tissue  poisonous? 

2d.  Are  infusions  of  the  gland  tissue  poisonous  ? 

At  first  sight,  nothing  seems  easier  than  to  answer  these  questions,  by  inoculat- 
ing animals  with  infusions  of  the  gland,  or  portions  of  its  tissue.  On  direct  expe- 
riment, sources  of  fallacy  at  once  appeared.  The  first  of  these  was  due  to  the 
difficulty  of  clearing  the  gland  of  poison  already  contained  in  it,  in  the  form  of 
venom,  filling  its  smaller  ducts.  Supposing  us  to  have  eliminated  this  element  of 
doubt,  and  to  have  ready  a  gland  tissue  washed  clear  of  its  actual  secretions,  if 
we  should  have  in  its  secernent  cells  but  a  small  amount  of  poison,  it  may  not  act 
upon  a  large  animal.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  very  small  animal  be  employed,  the 
reagent  may  prove  too  delicate  a  test,  and  the  animal  die  from  a  mere  trace  of  the 
venom  remaining  in  the  ducts,  or  even  of  the  operation  required  to  insert  a  whole 
venom  gland  under  its  skin. 

Experiment. — A  large  Crotalus,  fifty-three  inches  long,  was  secured  as  usual,  and 
four  drops  of  venom  obtained  from  it.  It  was  then  replaced  in  its  box,  supplied 
with  a  bath,  and  not  disturbed  during  five  days,  after  which  an  attempt  was  made 
to  rob  it  of  the  poison  formed  in  the  interval.  It  yielded  but  one  drop,  although 
it  struck  several  times  at  the  collecting  vessel.  Seeing  this,  and  knowing,  from 
previous  experience,  that  it  might  be  retaining  its  venom,  I  placed  within  its  jaws 
a  pigeon's  thigh,  freed  from  its  feathers.  The  serpent  bit  fiercely,  the  animal  dying 
in  twenty-nine  minutes.  A  second  pigeon  having  been  plucked,  so  as  to  expose 
the  breast,  the  snake  was  allowed  to  bite  it  three  times.  It  died  stupefied,  at  the 
close  of  an  hour. 

A  third  pigeon  was  next  arranged,  so  as  to  be  bitten  four  times  about  the  breast. 
The  snake,  by  this  time,  was  very  unwilling  to  use  its  fangs.  The  pigeon  died  in 
two  hours  and  a  half.  It  is  clear  from  these  experiments,  that  in  confinement  at 
least,  the  venom  is  formed  but  slowly,  and  that  in  the  present  case  the  gland  was, 
in  all  probability,  well  emptied  of  its  juices.  The  snake's  neck  was  next  severed 
about  two  inches  below  the  head,  and  the  glaiids  of  both  sides  rapidly  removed. 

The  ducts  were  cut  away  near  to  the  gland,  the  gland  tissue  pressed  between 
two  slips  of  board,  and  finally  washed  by  repeated  injections,  and  subsequent  com- 
pression, until  at  length  the  returning  fluid  brought  away  with  it  no  sediment. 
The  whole  of  one  gland  was  then  minced  up  with  twenty-five  drops  of  water,  and 
introduced  under  the  skin  of  the  breast  of  a  pigeon.  None  of  the  usual  local  or 
general  evidences  of  Crotalus  poisoning  followed,  and  within  fifty  hours  the  wound 
looked  dry  and  healthy.  After  this  time,  an  extensive  slough  took  place  above 
the  site  of  the  gland.  As  the  previous  signs  and  appearances  did  not  warrant  the 
idea  that  any  poisoning  could  have  taken  place,  I  made  several  experiments  to 
learn  how  far  the  skin  of  the  pigeon  can  be  separated  from  subjacent  tissues,  with- 
out endangering  its  vitality.  These  observations  soon  taught  me  that  any  foreign 
tissue  which  raised  the  pigeon's  skin  for  a  circumference  of  more  than  three  or  four 
lines,  was  apt  to  occasion  a  slough. 


40  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

Expe)-ime7it. — In  this  experiment,  I  prepared  a  large  gland,  as  above  described, 
and  inserted  it  in  seven  localities  about  the  body,  back,  and  legs  of  a  pigeon. 
Around  two  of  these,  on  the  back,  a  little  darkening  was  visible,  and  one  of  them 
sloughed  after  several  days. 

Exjpertment. — A  snake  thirty  inches  long  was  properly  secured,  a  pigeon  arranged 
as  usual,  and  placed  within  reach.  The  snake  bit  it  on  the  neck,  where  a  local 
discoloration  showed  itself  at  once.  On  further  provocation,  by  pinching  its  tail, 
it  bit  the  pigeon  several  times,  until,  as  I  supposed,  the  venom  was  exhausted.  As 
the  snake  had  been  used  to  kill  a  rabbit  five  days  before,  I  presume  the  quantity 
of  venom  not  to  have  been  large,  nor,  indeed,  could  it  have  been  so,  as  the  pigeon 
did  not  die  for  forty  minutes.  The  snake's  head  was  next  cut  off.  Placed  on  a 
plate,  it  bit  eagerly,  but  threw  out  no  venom,  even  when  I  galvanized  the  anterior 
temporal  muscle  after  removing  the  cuticle. 

Both  of  the  venom  glands  were  removed,  squeezed  thoroughly,  divided  length- 
wise and  across,  and  repeatedly  wiped  with  a  soft  towel.  Twelve  drops  of  water 
were  then  added,  and  both  glands  hashed  up  with  it,  a  drop  or  two  being  added  as 
it  dried.  The  temperature  was  that  of  the  air,  75°  F.  At  the  close  of  thirty-five 
minutes,  I  carefully  removed  all  the  fluid  with  a  pipette,  and  injected  it  under  the 
breast-skin,  and  into  the  muscles  of  a  pigeoia.  Five  hours  later,  the  bird  was  well, 
and  the  wound  quite  dry.  Eighteen  hours  after  inoculation,  it  yielded,  upon  pres- 
sure, a  little  serous  fluid,  and  around  the  part,  infiltrated  with  the  artificial  secre- 
tion, there  was  a  slight  darkening  of  the  skin,  whether  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
small  amount  of  poison,  and  the  consequent  extravasation,  or  to  my  having 
wounded  small  vessels,  I  am  unable  to  say.  Certainly,  no  other  evidences  of 
poison  were  noted,  and  the  wound  healed  after  a  little  serous  oozing.  No  slough 
took  place. 

Experiment. — The  gland  tissue  employed  in  the  last  observation,  was  dried  by 
frequent  wiping,  and  being  minutely  divided,  was  put  under  the  skin  of  a  rabbit's 
back.  The  animal  had  no  constitutional  disturbance  as  a  consequence,  and  was 
sacrificed  after  five  days  to  another  purpose.  A  small  abscess  had  formed  around 
the  foreign  tissues,  and  was  making  its  way  outwards.  No  extravasation  was 
visible. 

Experiment. — On  another  occasion,  an  infusion  of  two  small  glands  from  a  snake 
twenty-nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  was  used  upon  a  rabbit,  without  effect  visible 
to  the  eye.  The  fluid  seemed  to  have  been  absorbed  without  local  or  general  injury 
to  the  animal. 

Experiment. — The  whole  tissue  of  the  glands  just  mentioned  was  finally  minced, 
bruised,  dried  in  bibulous  paper,  and  carefully  introduced  under  the  skin  of  a 
pigeon's  breast,  by  pushing  in  a  small  tube  laterally,  and  through  this  distributing 
the  crushed  gland  tissue  as  the  tube  was  withdrawn.  In  this  way,  the  inoculation 
was  effected  without  much  separation  of  the  skin  from  the  parts  beneath.  In 
despite  of  this  precaution,  extensive  inflammation  ensued,  and  a  large  slough  of 
skin  took  place,  the  tissues  about  the  wound  becoming  infiltrated  with  serum.  No 
local  or  general  symptoms  of  poisoning  were  noted,  but  the  bird  sank,  became 
thin,  refused  food,  and  died  at  the  close  of  eight  days. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  41 

It  was  evident  from  these  experiments  that,  for  some  reason,  the  gland  and  its 
infusions  were  less  virulent  than  had  been  anticipated.  Eeflecting  upon  the  great 
relative  size  of  the  gland,  and  upon  the  minute  amount  of  secretion  elaborated  by 
it,  it  seemed  to  me  possible  that  the  quantity  of  gland  matter  stored  up  for  its 
production,  might  also  be  but  small,  and  that  if  this  were  so,  the  pigeon  might 
not  suffice  as  a  test  of  its  existence.  The  following  experiments  were  the  result 
of  this  view. 

Experiment. — A  large  snake,  weighing  four  pounds,  and  measuring  three  feet  eight 
inches,  was  secured,  and  allowed  to  bite  a  reed-bird,  which  died  within  one  minute, 
exhibiting  both  local  and  general  symptoms.  The  snake  was  then  teazed  until  it 
struck,  and  threw  out  a  drop  or  two  of  poison  from  each  gland,  after  which  its  head 
was  cut  off,  the  ducts  divided,  and  the  gland  thoroughly  emptied  by  pressure.  It. 
was  then  finely  divided  as  usual,  washed,  and  dried  in  bibulous  paper.  Thus 
prepared,  the  gland  was  considered  to  be  free  from  any  poison  which  might  have 
been  already  secreted  in  a  fluid  form,  and  was  treated  with  twenty-five  drops  of 
water,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  90°  F.  for  thirty  minutes,  during  which  time 
it  was  frequently  stirred,  and  compressed  with  a  small  pestle,  while  the  water  was 
renewed  as  it  evaporated.  The  whole  of  the  fluid  was  next  drawn  up  into  a  fine 
tube,  and  carefully  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  breast  of  a  reed-bird.  After 
four  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  the  bird  was  seen  to  be  weak,  but  the  local  signs 
were  of  uncertain  value.  Twenty-one  hours  after  poisoning,  the  bird  was  found 
dead.     Its  muscles  were  firm,  the  blood  dark  and  loosely  coagulated. 

Experiment. — The  remnant  of  gland  tissue  was  put  under  the  skin  of  a  reed- 
bird,  one  portion  being  placed  in  the  breast,  another  in  the  thigh.  This  bird  died 
within  twenty-one  hours,  and  in  it,  also,  the  symptoms  of  local  poisoning  were 
deficient.     The  blood  was  even  better  coagulated  than  in  the  last  case. 

Experiment. — A  snake  of  middle  size  (about  two  and  a  half  feet  long)  was  made 
to  employ  its  glands,  and  was  then  decollated,  the  glands  extracted,  divided,  and 
washed  as  usual.  Ten  drops  of  water  were  mixed  with  the  tissue  of  this  gland, 
and  being  placed  in  a  test-tube,  it  was  left  at  a  temperature  of  85°  F.  for  two  hours. 
The  fluid  was  then  drained  from  the  gland,  and  injected  into  the  thigh  of  a  reed- 
bird.  In  two  hours  and  four  minutes  the  bird  was  becoming  weak,  and  the  extra- 
vasation of  blood — which  is  the  most  marked  symptom  of  Crotalus  poisoning — was 
sufficiently  distinct.  Two  hours  later,  the  bird  was  rocking  on  its  feet,  and  the 
extravasation  was  larger.  It  died  during  the  following  night.  On  examination, 
the  muscles  about  the  wound  were  softened,  and  even  decomposing,  and  the  blood 
was  chiefly  uncoagulated  with  an  occasional  clot  of  minute  size  and  loose  texture. 

Experiment. — The  remnant  of  gland  used  in  the  last  observation  was  again 
treated  with  ten  drops  of  water,  which  became  slightly  milky  in  hue  on  being 
agitated,  and  incorporated  with  the  bruised  tissue.  After  half  an  hour  it  was 
finally  drained  from  the  gland,  and  injected  as  usual  under  the  breast  skin  of  a 
reed-bird;  proper  precaution  being  always  observed  to  avoid  raising  the  skin  too 
much.  Within  two  hours  and  ten  minutes  the  bird  was  weak,  and  the  breast 
tissues  contained  a  little  extravasated  blood.  One  hour  and  ten  minutes  later,  the 
local  symptoms  were  unaltered,  and  the  bird  weaker.  It  died  during  the  ensuing 
6 


42  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

niglit.  Its  wounds  were  slightly  tinted  with  effused  blood;  but  the  muscles  were 
not  softened  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  last  case,  nor  were  they  at  all  decom- 
posed.    The  blood  of  this  bird  was  imperfectly  coagulated. 

Upon  considering  the  foregoing  experiments,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  pigeons 
escaped  but  one,  that  the  rabbit  was  also  unhurt,  and  that  the  reed-birds  all  died. 
These  little  birds  are,  however,  uncommonly  hardy,  and,  as  we  shall  see  in  future, 
do  not  succumb  readily  when  mechanically  injured.  Again,  when,  at  this  period, 
1  subjected  other  reed-birds,  to  the  number  of  ten,  to  similar  wounds,  and  injected 
these  with  water  and  infusions  of  fresh  muscle,  only  two  out  of  the  ten  died. 
It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  avoid  the  belief  that  the  reed-birds  which  received  in 
their  tissues  the  minced  gland  and  its  infusions,  really  perished  from  the  rattle- 
snake poison;  a  belief  which,  on  the  whole,  was  strengthened  by  the  state  of  their 
blood  and  muscles,  and  by  the  local  signs  which  some  of  them  exhibited.  It  is 
also  to  be  observed  that  the  reed-bird  is  remarkably  susceptible  to  Crotalus  venom, 
and  will  frequently  die  from  a  quantity  of  poison  so  minute  that  it  would  be  hard 
to  conceive  of  its  power  to  destroy  life,  until  we  had  made  the  experiment.  Thus, 
while  half  a  drop  will  often  kill  a  reed-bird  in  a  minute  or  two,  one-eighth  of  a 
drop  will  prove  fatal  after  a  lapse  of  from  two  to  eight  hours;  so  that  it  is  probable 
that  even  a  smaller  quantity  would  be  found  sufficient  to  destroy  its  existence. 
Now,  as  it  is  possible  that  quantities  so  minute  may  escape  any  mode  of  separa- 
tion, and  thus  may  remain  in  the  gland  tissue  until  the  final  infusion  is  formed,  or 
even  afterwards,  we  are  not  logically  called  upon  to  infer  from  the  last  series  of 
experiments,  that  the  material  for  a  sudden  temporary  supply  of  venom-saliva  is 
stored-  away  in  the  gland  in  a  semi-solid  state.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  the 
venom  secretion  is  probably  unlike  saliva. 

Again,  unlike  saliva,  venom  is  formed  slowly,  and  thence  we  have  some  right 
to  infer  that  those  provisions  for  rapid  secretion,  which  belong  to  the  salivary 
glands  of  man  or  the  dog,  need  not  exist  in  the  poison  gland  of  the  serpent,  and 
this  view  is  certainly  fortified,  upon  the  whole,  by  the  genei'al  result  of  the  experi- 
ments above  detailed. 

In  despite  of  what  has  here  been  urged,  it  is  still  desirable  that  these  experi- 
ments should  be  repeated,  with  every  possible  modification;  since,  as  I  have 
endeavored  to  show,  this,  like  all  other  portions  of  our  subject,  is  girt  about  with 
such  difficulties  as  may  well  baffle  the  most  careful. 

We  have  now  to  ascertain  how  much  right  the  venom  gland  has  to  be  regarded 
as  a  salivary  organ,  analogous  to  the  parotid  gland. 

The  argument  from  anatomy  alone  would  certainly  teach  us  to  respect  this  view 
as  correct,  and  to  consider  the  poison  gland  as  a  true  salivary  organ.  Its  position 
and  general  structure  all  favor  this  idea,  just  as  the  appearance  and  minute 
anatomy  of  the  pancreas  were  once  believed  to  authorize  us  in  placing  that  organ 
among  the  salivary  bodies,  and  in  giving  to  it  the  name  of  the  abdominal  salivary 
gland.  But  in  this  case,  as  in  the  one  before  us,  the  broader  light  of  physiological 
inquiry  has  revealed  the  truth,  that  anatomical  resemblance,  even  to  the  minutest 
details,  does  not  of  necessity  involve  physiological  likeness.  When,  therefore,  we 
turn  from  the  anatomy  of  the  poison  gland  to  examine  it  under  other  points  of 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  43 

view,  we  learn  that  in  Crotalus  its  secretion  is  constantly  acid,  and  in  the  Viper 
neutral,  while  the  saliva  of  the  parotid  in  all  animals  yet  examined  is  as  unchange- 
ably alkaline.  Again,  while  saliva  is  a  secretion  of  rapid  formation,  and  appro- 
priated to  specific  mechanical  and  chemical  purposes  within  the  economy,  the 
venom  fluid  is  slowly  elaborated,  slowly  reproduced  when  lost,  and  destined  to  no 
end  within  the  body  which  produces  it.  Lastly,  its  singular  nature  as  a  ferment, 
poisonous  to  other  animals  as  well  as  to  its  owner,  constitutes  a  distinction,  which, 
with  the  other  points  of  difference  already  considered,  forbid  the  physiologist  to 
regard  it  as,  in  any  true  sense,  a  salivary  secretion,  or  its  forming  organ  as  a  sali- 
vary gland. 

Effect  of  Various  Temperatures  on  the  Activity  of  Venom. — When  I  contemplated  a 
series  of  researches  upon  the  antidotes  to  Crotalus  poisoning,  I  planned  and  executed 
a  large  number  of  experiments  directed  towards  increasing  our  knowledge  of  the 
influence  of  physical  and  chemical  agents  upon  the  noxious  properties  of  venom. 
Some  of  these  researches  were  modified  repetitions  of  work  already  done  by  others, 
but  the  majority  were  novel,  and  appear  to  me  to  cast  considerable  light  upon  the 
subject. 

Especially  do  they  clear  the  ground  for  more  just  conceptions  of  the  real  value 
and  therapeutic  possibilities  of  antidotes.  Without  them,  also,  no  fitting  idea  of 
the  singular  energy  of  this  poison  could  be  formed,  nor  should  we  be  able  to  con- 
ceive of  the  tenacity  with  which  its  powers  are  preserved  in  the  presence  of  violent 
chemical  reagents  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

I  was  well  aware  that  the  dried  venom  retained  its  potency  after  two  years  of 
climatic  changes,  and  that  even  the  fresh  poison,  although  prone  to  partial  decom- 
position, might  also  remain  active,  after  a  sojourn  of  several  weeks  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  65°  to  70°  P. 

In  the  experiments  upon  the  influence  of  extreme  temperatures,  I  was  obliged 
to  resort  to  the  following  means  : — 

First.  I  established  the  fact  that  dilution  did  not  injure  the  venom;  and  next, 
that  minute  quantities,  as  one-eighth  or  one-half  of  a  drop,  were  fatal  to  the  reed- 
bird  within  a  few  hours,  more  or  less.  As  it  was  impossible  to  use  large  amounts 
of  venom,  owing  to  the  economy  with  which  I  was  forced  to  employ  it,  I  arranged 
a  tube  of  such  size,  that  a  marked  half  inch  held  one  drop  of  a  mixture  made  by 
adding  four  drops  of  water  to  one  of  the  venom. 

Experiment. — The  marked  tube  was  drawn  to  a  capillary  point,  and  a  little  venom 
sucked  up  into  it,  and  so  manipulated  as  to  leave  in  the  tube  one  drop  of  the  mix- 
ture, representing  one-fifth  of  a  drop  of  venom.  By  very  gentle  suction,  this  was 
next  drawn  two  inches  up  the  tube,  and  the  capillary  point  below,  closed  in  the 
blowpipe  flame. 

Thus  prepared,  the  tube  was  plunged  in  a  freezing  mixture,  and  kept  at  a  tempera- 
ture 3°  to  4°  above  zero  P.  At  the  close  of  half  an  hour,  the  tube  was  placed  in 
water  at  70°  F.,  and  when  the  contents  became  fluid,  the  point  of  the  tube  was 
broken  off,  and  the  venom  ejected  into  the  breast  tissues  of  a  reed-bird,  which  died 
convulsed  in  twenty-seven  minutes.  Two  repetitions  of  this  experiment  gave  no 
different  result. 


44 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 


The  same  little  apparatus  was  also  employed  in  the  following  experiments  on 
the  effects  of  heat  on  the  venom.  In  each  case  the  tube  was  charged,  sealed  at 
one  end,  and  placed  in  water  of  the  required  temperature.  In  sustaining  the 
standard  of  heat,  it  occasionally  happened  that  the  temperature  rose  one  or  two 
degrees  too  high,  but  this  in  no  way  affected  the  general  result  or  its  value. 
When  the  higher  temperatures  were  used,  the  finger  was  sometimes  placed  on  the 
open  end  of  the  tube,  both  to  prevent  the  bubble  of  air  below  the  venom  from  en- 
larging in  the  heat  so  as  to  expel  the  fluid  above  it,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of 
limiting  evaporation. 

The  results  attained  are  expressed  in  the  following  table  : — 


TIME  OF  EXPOSURE  IN  ALL  THE  CASES  TWENTY  OR  THIRTY  MINUTES. 

Amount  of  Vekom  one-foukth  to  one-eishth  of  a  Deop. 

No. 

Temperature. 

Visible  effects  on  the  venom. 

Result  when  injected  into  the  breast  of  reed-birds. 

1 

112°  F. 

Kone 

(  Killed  in  35  minutes.  Convulsions  and  marked 
\      local  phenomena. 

2 

120°  F. 

None 

Death  in  21  minutes,  convulsions,  local  signs. 

8 

130°  to  134°  F. 

None 

Death  in  39       "                "              " 

4 

140°  to  142°  F. 

None 

Death  in  45       "                "              "        " 

5 

f  (i  drop  of  venom) 
I  148°  to  151°  F. 

Slight  coagulation  )^ 
took  place.        J 

Death  in  43       "                "              "        " 

6 

180°  to  184°  F. 

Coagulation 

Death  in  48       "                "              "        " 

1 

212°  F. 

Dense  coagulation 

Death  in  2  hours.     No  convulsions  or  local  signs. 

6 

212°  F. 

«            ii 

No  malady,  except  marked  feebleness  for  2  or  3  hours. 

9 

212°  F. 

ti            It 

(  The  bird  became  weak  in  20  minutes,  and  breathed 

10 

212°  F. 

<  laboriously  for  a  time,  but  finally  recovered. 
(     Slight  and  doubtful  local  signs. 

The  results  exhibited  in  the  table  seemed  to  show  that,  while  freezing  did  not 
alter  the  powers  of  the  venom,  it  lost  its  toxicological  vitality  at  a  temperature  of 
212°  F. 

Upon  re-examining  this  question  at  a  later  date,  and  with  larger  quantities  of 
venom,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  I  had  been  mistaken,  and  that  the  most  pro- 
longed boiling  was  inadequate  to  destroy  the  virulence  of  the  venom.  The  error 
into  which  I  previously  fell  was  due  to  the  following  causes : — 

I  have  shown  that  after  boiling,  the  active  portions  of  the  poison  were  the  super- 
natant fluids,  and  not  the  coagulum.  Now,  when  the  amount  employed  was  small, 
and  the  boiling  was  conducted  in  tubes  of  moderate  calibre,  the  quantity  of  fluid 
surrounding  the  coagulum  was  in  proportion  minute.  The  larger  part  of  it,  there- 
fore, clung  to  the  tube,  and  was  practically  lost.  That  which  adhered  to  the  pre- 
cipitate proved  insufiicient,  in  most  cases,  to  destroy  life,  although  some  of  the  ani- 
mals suffered  from  its  use. 

In  August,  1860,  a  year  after  the  first  examination  of  this  point,  I  carefully 
studied  it  anew.  Not  less  than  four  drops  of  venom  were  employed  in  each  case, 
and  the  process  of  boihng  was  varied  in  duration,  so  that  in  some  cases  it  was 
continued  for  five  minutes,  in  others  for  half  an  hour  or  more.     Thus  prepared,  the 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  45 

coagulum  and  the  supernatant  fluid  were  thrown  into  the  tissues  of  full-grown 
pigeons.     Of  six  thus  treated,  all  died  with  the  usual  symptoms. 

In  a  second  series  of  experiments,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded  (see  chemistry 
of  the  venom),  the  coagulum  and  supernatant  fluid  were  separated  by  filtration  j 
the  coagulum  washed,  and  the  two  products  injected  separately  into  two  pigeons. 
In  eight  experiments  of  this  kind  it  was  found  that  the  coagulum  by  heat  was 
always  innocent,  the  fluid  as  uniformly  poisonous.  It  is  unnecessary  to  relate 
these  cases  in  detail,  but  it  was  further  observed  that  the  fatal  cases  died  with  the 
usual  rapidity,  a  fact  which  permits  us  to  suspect  that  the  venom  loses  no  power 
by  being  heated,  and  that  the  albuminoid  compound,  which  constituted  the  coagu- 
lum, was  not  poisonous  before  its  condition  was  altered  by  elevation  of  temperature. 

We  thus  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  venom  of  the  Crotalus  is  toxically 
unaltered  by  freezing  or  boiling,  and  of  course  by  the  intermediate  temperatures 
to  which  it  may  be  subjected. 

It  is  not  a  little  curious  that  the  animals  which  perished  from  the  injection  of 
boiled  venom  exhibited  very  trifling  local  evidences  of  the  action  of  the  poison.  I 
am  unable  to  oflfer  any  plausible  explanation  of  this  curious  deficiency. 

Influence  of  Certain  Chemical  Agents  on  the  Activity  of  Venom. — In  the  following 
observations  upon  the  influence  of  chemical  agents  on  the  activity  of  the  Crotalus 
poison,  certain  necessary  precautions  were  carefully  attended  to,  without  which 
the  results  attained  would  have  been  of  but  trifling  value.  Thus,  for  example, 
in  using  strong  acids,  alkalies,  etc.,  it  was  necessary  to  make  sure  that  the  caustic 
action  of  these  substances  did  not  prove  fatal  to  animals  as  small  as  the  reed-bird. 
This  end  was  obtained  by  carefully  neutralizing  the  substances  employed,  after 
they  had  been  allowed  to  affect  the  venom  for  a  time.  Where  this  could  not  be 
done,  as  with  alcohol,  etc.,  the  result  was  checked  or  tested  by  experimenting  with 
the  substance  alone,  free  from  the  presence  of  the  venom. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  give  detailed  accounts  of  some  of  these  experiments,  and 
to  state  merely  the  results  of  the  remainder;  since  the  precautions  employed  were 
similar  in  all  the  cases. 

Alcohol. — I  cannot  find  that  Fontana  actually  mixed  this  fluid  with  venom,  and 
then  essayed  its  powers,  with  the  object  of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  they  were 
modified.  Dr.  Brainard^  was  probably  the  first  to  make  this  direct  observation, 
not  only  with  alcohol,  but  also  with  oil  of  turpentine,  and  the  solutions  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  ammonia,  soda,  and  potassa".  He  found  that  the  mixture  of  these  agents 
with  venom  did  not  alter  or  delay  its  action,  provided  the  reagents  were  not  of 
caustic  strength. 

ExiJeriment. — The  venom  to  be  used  having  been  previously  tested  and  found  to 
be  potent,  two  drops  of  it  were  treated  with  twenty-five  drops  of  alcohol.  A  dense 
coagulum  formed,  and  at  the  close  of  ten  minutes  the  mixture  was  injected  into 
the  breast  tissues  of  a  pigeon,  which  died,  with  slight  local  signs  of  poisoning,  at 
the  close  of  thirty-seven  minutes.  A  check  experiment  was  made  at  the  same 
time,  to  learn  how  much  the  amount  of  alcohol  used  (twenty-five  drops)  would 

^  Smithsonian  Report,  1854,  p.  133. 


46  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

aflfect  the  pigeon  when  injected  alone.     It  ajDpeared  to  cause  slight  stupefaction, 
which  passed  off  rapidly. 

Experiment. — About  one-third  of  a  drop  of  venom  was  treated  with  a  drachm  of 
alcohol.  The  mixture,  which  was  allowed  to  evaporate  to  about  seven  drop's,  was 
placed  under  the  skin  of  a  reed-bird.  It  died  in  twelve  minutes.  When  eight 
drops  of  alcohol  were  used  alone,  the  bird  was  a  good  deal  stupefied  for  two  hours, 
but  no  serious  result  was  observable. 

Experiment. — About  one-half  of  a  drop  of  venom  was  mixed  with  about  one 
drachm  of  alcohol,  and  kept  four  weeks.  The  precipitate  at  the  bottom  was  then 
collected  into  a  pipette,  dried,  redissolved  in  water,  and  thrown  under  the  breast 
skin  of  a  reed-bird.  Slight  local  evidence  of  poisoning  was  visible,  but  the  bird 
died  within  nine  hours;  an  unusually  long  period.  A  repetition  of  this  experiment 
gave  a  more  sudden  result,  the  bird  dying  in  two  hours. 

A  great  number  of  observations  similar  to  those  just  related  convinced  me  that 
mere  mixture  with  alcohol  did  not  render  the  venom  innocent. 

As  it  appeared  from  Dr.  Brainard's  experiments,  that  in  mingling  the  venom 
with  active  reagents,  he  had  used  these  in  a  diluted  state,  I  made  a  number  of 
observations  to  learn  whether  or  not  these  agents  would  affect  the  potency  of  the 
poison  when  allowed  to  act  on  it  without  previous  dilution. 

Experiment. — About  one-third  of  a  drop  of  pure  venom  was  put  upon  a  glass 
slide,  and  three  drops  of  strong  nitric  acid  were  dropped  upon  it.  Coagulation 
occurred,  and  in  twelve  minutes  the  acid  was  neutralized  with  liq.  potass^,  and 
the  mixture  injected  in  three  places  into  the  breast  and  thigh  of  a  reed-bird,  which 
died  in  three  hours.  The  wound  was  red,  and  not  dark  as  usual,  a  fact  which  may 
have  been  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  nitrate  of  potassa.  This  observation  was 
repeated  twice  with  like  results. 

Similar  experiments  were  made  with  strong  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acid,  and 
with  ammonia,  chlorine-water,  iodine,  soda,  and  potassa.  None  of  these  agents 
destroyed  the  virulence  of  the  venom.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  in  each  case  the 
contact  was  preserved  during  several  minutes,  and  that  the  substances  employed 
were  neutralized  before  making  the  several  injections.^ 


*  When  venom  was  mingled  witli  certain  of  these  agents,  such  as  iodine  in  solution,  tannic  acid,  etc., 
and  then  injected,  the  constitutional  symptoms  declared  .themselves  as  usual  in  the  pigeons  employed, 
but  the  local  phenomena  were  more  or  less  wanting.  With  this  latter  fact  Dr.  Brainard  has  made  us 
acquainted,  so  far  as  iodine  is  concerned. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  47 


CHAP  TEE   V. 

TOXICOLOGY  OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  CROTALUS. 

The  strange  and  subtle  poison  which  we  have  hitherto  considered  chemically, 
will  hereafter  claina  our  attention  in  its  relations  to  animal  and  vegetable  life.  In 
the  course  of  study  thus  laid  down,  we  shall  be  called  upon  to  examine,  first,  its 
influence  upon  the  lower  vegetable  existences.  Secondly,  its  power  to  affect  higher 
vegetable  organisms,  and  the  germination  of  seeds.  Thirdly,  its  activity  with 
relation  to  the  lower  animals ;  and,  fourthly,  the  influence  of  the  venom  upon  the 
mammalia,  such  as  the  dog,  and,  finally,  man  himself. 

The  subject  of  the  power  of  serpent  venom  to  destroy  vegetable  life  has  attracted 
the  notice  of  but  two,  among  the  many  observers  who  have  studied  the  poison  of 
Indian,  European,  or  American  reptiles.  Neither  of  the  observers  alluded  to 
has  investigated  the  matter  very  fully,  and  I  have,  therefore,  endeavored  to  fill 
the  void  thus  left,  as  completely  as  possible. 

Before  I  proceed  to  detail  my  own  results,  it  will  be  proper  to  state,  briefly,  the 
conclusions  at  which  others  have  arrived.^ 

Dr.  Gilman  says :  "  During  the  process  of  robbing  several  species  of  serpents  (of 
venom),  I  inoculated  several  small,  but  vigorous  and  perfectly  healthy  vegetables 
with  the  point  of  a  lancet  well  charged  with  venom.  The  next  day  they  were 
withered  and  dead,  looking  as  though  they  had  been  scathed  with  lightning." 

The  experiments  thus  described  are  so  very  limited,  and  so  wanting  in  state- 
ment of  details,  that  it  is  diflQcult  to  accord  to  them  any  great  value  as  scientific 
evidence.  Even  in  so  trifling  a  matter  as  this,  the  sources  of  error  are  numerous, 
and  we  have  a  right  to  demand  every  possible  knowledge  as  to  the  temperature 
and  season,  the  size  of  the  plants,  the  amount  of  venom  employed,  and  the  effect  of 
wounding  similar  plants  to  the  same  extent,  but  without  the  use  of  the  venom.^ 


»  On  the  Venom  of  Serpents,  B.  J.  Gilman,  A.  M.  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  St.  Louis  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal, 
1854,  p.  25. 

»  An  amusing  story,  whicli  passed  through  three  persons,  reached  the  Philosophical  Transactions  (vol. 
sxxviii.  p.  321)  in  the  following  form  :  "  Sir  Hans  Sloan  learned  from  Col.  Beverley  (Hist,  of  Va.,  2d 
ed.  p.  260)  that  Col.  James  Taylor,  of  Metapony,  had  stated  to  him  that,  having  found  a  Rattlesnake, 
they  cut  off  his  head,  with  three  inches  of  his  body.  A  green  stick,  the  bark  being  peeled  off,  was  put 
to  the  head.  It  bit  it,  when  small  green  streaks  were  observed  to  rise  up  along  the  stick  towards  the 
hand.  At  this  juncture,  the  Colonel  wisely  dropped  the  stick,  which,  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  of  its  own 
accord,  split  into  several  pieces,  and  fell  asunder  from  end  to  end." 


48  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

The  only  remaining  authority  upon  this  portion  of  our  subject,  is  Dr.  Salisbury.^ 

A  large  female  rattlesnake,  without  food  for  a  year,  died,  and  on  dissection  its 
poison  ducts  supplied  Dr.  Salisbury  with  a  small  amount  of  venom.  This  was 
used  on  plants,  without  having  been  tested  upon  animals. 

"  About  fifteen  minutes  after  its  removal,  four  young  shoots  of  the  lilac  {Syringa 
vulgaris),  a  small  horse-chestnut  of  one  year's  growth  {CEsculus  liippocastanum) ,  a 
corn  plant  {Zea  mays),  a  sun-flower  plant  [Helianthus  annuus),  and  a  wild  cucumber 
vine,  were  severally  vaccinated  with  it.  The  vaccination  was  performed  by  dip- 
ping the  point  of  a  penknife  into  the  poisonous  matter,  and  then  inserting  it  into 
the  plant,  just  beneath  the  inner  bark.  No  visible  effect  from  the  poison  was 
perceptible  until  about  sixty  hours  after  it  had  been  inserted.  At  this  time,  the 
leaves  above  the  wound,  in  each  case,  began  to  wilt.  The  bark  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  incision  exhibited  scarcely  a  perceptible  change ;  in  fact,  it  would  have  been 
diflScult  to  have  found  the  points,  had  they  not  been  marked  when  the  poison  was 
inserted. 

"  Ninety-six  hours  after  the  operations,  nearly  all  the  leaf-blades  in  each  of  the 
plants,  above  the  wounded  part,  were  wilted,  and  apparently  quite  dead.  On  the 
fifth  day,  the  jDctioles  and  bark  above  the  incisions  began  to  lose  their  freshness,  and 
on  the  sixth  day  they  were  considerably  withered.  On  the  tenth  day,  they  began 
to  show  slight  signs  of  recovery.  On  the  fifteenth,  new  but  sickly-appearing  leaves 
began  to  show  themselves  on  the  lilacs,  and  the  other  plants  began  to  show  slight 
signs  of  recovery  in  the  same  way.  Neither  of  the  plants  was  entirely  deprived 
of  life." 

Dr.  Salisbury  afterwards  comments  upon  the  fact  of  the  edges  and  apices  of  the 
leaves  being  the  parts  first  attacked.  He  also  states  that  the  leaves  below  the 
points  of  innoculation  were  altogether  unaffected,  while  those  on  the  side  upon 
which  the  venom  was  inserted  were  the  first  to  suffer. 

These  experiments  were  made  in  June. 

An  objection  to  the  want  of  a  precedent  test  experiment  upon  animals  as  to  the 
virulency  of  the  poison  used  has  been  above  suggested.  This  objection,  it  is  true, 
loses  some  weight  in  the  presence  of  a  positive  result.  I  have  mentioned  it,  how- 
ever, because  it  was  possible  that  the  secretion  of  the  snake  in  question  might  have 
been  altogether  harmless,  and  the  apparent  results  upon  the  plants  only  the  effect 
of  a  mechanical  injury  to  their  tissues.  This  very  result  occurred  to  me  during 
the  summer  of  1S59. 

A  large  snake,  neai'ly  five  feet  long,  was  sent  to  me  from  Iowa.  It  came  in  a 
very  small,  flat  box,  and  was  so  coiled  that  it  must  have  been  difficult  for  it  to 
move.  When  I  removed  it  from  its  confinement  it  was  sluggish,  and  was  only 
induced  to  bite  upon  being  much  irritated.  During  the  month  of  July  the  snake 
made  no  use  of  the  bath  in  its  cage;  and,  like  the  rest,  took  no  food,  nor  did  I  feed  it 
as  I  did  some  of  its  companions.  A  week  before  its  death,  there  is  a  record  on  my 
notes  of  its  having  bitten  a  pigeon,  which  recovered  in  spite  of  a  deep  wound  from 

^  Influence  of  the  Poison  of  the  Northern  Rattlesnake  (Crotalus  durissns)  on  Plants.  By  J.  H. 
Salisbury,  M.  D.,  N.  Y.  Journ.  of  Med.,  vol.  xiii.  New  Series,  1854,  p.  337. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  49 

one  fang  in  the  thigh.     The  snake  was  found  dead  on  the  seventh  day  after  this 
occurrence. 

Upon  careful  dissection,  I  found  that  the  venom  gland  and  the  ducts  on  the 
right  side,  were  full  of  a  bloody  fluid,  with  a  faint  alkaline  reaction,  and  containing 
an  abundance  of  club-shaped  epithelial  cells.  The  gland  on  the  left  side  was  nearly 
empty;  its  tissue  was  stained  with  blood.  As  I  was  curious  to  learn  whether  or 
not  the  altered  poison  had  lost  its  power,  I  collected  all  the  fluid  contents  of  both 
glands,  and  their  ducts,  and  inoculated  with  them  the  back,  breast,  and  thigh  of 
a  pigeon,  inserting  in  all  about  nine  drops.  The  pigeon  was  slightly  affected  after 
the  lapse  of  an  hour,  and  was  disposed  to  seek  a  corner  and  sleep.  Four  hours 
later,  however,  it  was  seemingly  none  the  worse  for  the  operation.  A  small  oozing 
of  serum  took  place  from  one  of  the  wounds  in  the  back,  some  days  afterwards,  but  . 
the  pigeon  suffered  no  permanent  injury. 

This  result  was  enough  to  convince  me  that  disease  might  alter  the  secretion  of 
the  venom  glands,  as  it  sometimes  does  that  of  the  human  salivary  glands.  I  have 
alluded  to  it  hei'e,  in  order  to  fortify  my  criticism  upon  Dr.  Salisbury's  experiments. 
It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  Dr.  Salisbury  did  not  make  any  comparative 
observations,  by  wounding  in  a  nearly  similar  manner,  but  with  a  clean  weapon, 
plants  of  the  same  species  and  of  equal  size. 

Beyond  the  points  alluded  to,  there  seems  to  be  no  objection  to  the  experiments 
of  Dr.  Salisbury.  He  certainly  appears  to  have  been  entirely  successful  in  poison- 
ing plants,  with  Crotalus  venom;  since,  of  eight  plants  injected,  each  and  all  seem 
to  have  suffered  the  same  changes. 

I  have  been  the  more  willing  to  quote  these  results  in  full,  because  my  own 
efforts  to  afiect  plants  in  the  same  way  were  singularly  unfortunate.  The  point 
on  which  our  experiments  admit  of  no  comparison  is  in  regard  to  the  species  of  the 
plant  employed.  At  the  season  when  I  made  my  researches  upon  plant  poisoning, 
I  was  unable  to  obtain  the  same  plants  as  were  used  by  Dr.  Salisbury. 

My  first  experiments  upon  plant  poisoning  were  incidental  to  an  examination  of 
the  power  of  Crotalus  venom  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  fermentation.  After 
ascertaining,  as  I  have  already  stated,  that  the  conversion  of  starch  into  grape 
sugar  was  in  no  way  interfered  with  when  the  venom  was  added  to  the  mixture,  I 
proceeded  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  vinous  fermentation  would  also  take 
place  in  its  presence. 

Accordingly,  a  small  amount  of  poison  having  been  procured  as  usual,  I  found  that 
it  was  fatal  to  a  reed-bird,  and  then  proceeded  to  make  the  following  experiment. 

Experiment.— Two  test  tubes  of  equal  size,  and  capable  of  holding  about  one  and 
a  half  ounces  each,  were  fitted  with  corks,  through  which  ran  glass  tubes,  long 
enough  to  reach  to  the  bottom.  At  the  lower  end,  the  contained  tubes  were  bent 
at  an  acute  angle,  and  drawn  to  a  fine  orifice.  Above  the  cork  they  were  also  bent 
so  as  to  form  a  double  U-curve  external  to  the  test  glass.  Each  of  the  test  glasses 
was  then  filled  with  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water,  twenty  grains  of  sugar  being 
placed  in  each  apparatus.  To  No.  1  were  added  a  few  drops  of  yeast,  and  to  No.  2 
about  the  same  amount  of  yeast,  together  with  five  drops  of  venom.  Both  test 
tubes  were  next  corked  with  care,  so  as  to  exclude  any  bubbles  of  air,  and  the 
7 


50  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

level  to  which  the  fluid  rose  in  the  tubes  having  been  marked,  they  were  finally 
placed  in  an  atmosphere  of  75°  F.  Through  accident  the  temperature  was  allowed 
to  rise  to  128°  F.  It  afterwards  fell  to  80°  F.,  was  kept  at  this  during  two  hours 
and  a  half,  and  was  then  abandoned  to  the  atmospheric  temperature,  which  varied 
during  the  experiment  from  69°  to  77°  F.  Experiments  previously  made,  con- 
vinced me  that  the  accidental  rise  of  temperature  would  not  be  likely  to  injure  the 
venom.  The  action  of  the  ferment  was  unusually  slow,  but  at  the  end  of  forty- 
eight  hours  both  solutions  had  fermented,  the  test  glasses  were  half  full  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  the  fluid  thus  displaced  had  risen  through  the  tubes  and  overflowed 
externally. 

Experiment. — On  this  occasion,  I  modified  the  process  by  leaving  the  ten  drops 
of  yeast  in  contact  with  three  drops  of  venom  for  two  hours,  at  a  temperature  of 
79°  F.  In  all  other  respects,  the  experiment  resembled  that  last  described. 
Within  thirtj^-nine  hours,  both  tubes  had  fermented  freely.  The  remnant  solu- 
tions within  the  test-tubes  contained  an  abundance  of  yeast  fungus,  and  I  was, 
therefore,  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  venom  does  not  interfere  with  alcoholic 
fermentation,  nor  with  the  accompanying  growth  of  sporules. 

The  next  observations  upon  the  efiect  of  the  venom  on  the  lower  vegetable 
growths,  were  accidentally  introduced  to  my  notice.  They  appear  to  me  to  be 
still  more  decisive  than  those  last  mentioned. 

During  the  warm  weather  of  August,  I  had  mixed  two  or  three  drops  of  venom 
with  eight  or  ten  of  water,  and  left  the  mixture  in  a  corked  test-tube  on  my  table. 
It  was  neglected  during  two  weeks,  and  when  microscopically  examined,  was  found 
to  contain  a  number  of  what  I  took  to  be  the  sporules  of  fungi.  During  the  month 
of  September  I  repeated  this  observation  upon  some  diluted  poison  which  had  been 
left  in  a  test-tube  during  three  weeks.  In  this  specimen,  I  found  an  abundance  of 
sporules. 

As  it  was  possible  that  the  solution  of  venom  might,  by  decomposing,  have  lost 
its  virulence,  I  tested  it  by  inoculating  with  it  the  breasts  of  two  reed-birds  which 
died  with  the  usual  local  and  general  symptoms  within  two  hours. 

In  passing  to  my  experiments  upon  a  higher  order  of  plants,  I  began  by  using 
dried  venom  about  two  years  old,  but,  as  my  experiments  upon  animals  will 
show,  of  a  potency  only  inferior  to  that  of  the  freshest  material. 

Experiment. — During  the  month  of  June,  1859,  four  young  shoots  of  tradescantia, 
a  very  succulent  and  rather  tender  trailing  plant,  were  selected  for  experiment. 
Each  of  the  shoots  was  split  half  way  through,  and  about  one-third  of  a  grain  of 
dry,  pulverized  venom  was  dropped  into  the  opening,  which  was  then  allowed  to 
close  on  the  poison.  The  plants  were  next  well  watered,  and  a  drop  or  two  allowed 
to  -fall  on  the  line  of  the  incision.  Four  other  shoots,  two  on  the  same,  and  two 
on  other  plants,  were  similarly,  or  even  more  mutilated,  and  in  all  cases  the  shoots 
chosen  were  from  five  to  seven  inches  long.  During  a  week,  no  result  was  ob- 
tained from  these  experiments.  After  that  period,  two  of  the  unvenomed  shoots, 
and  one  of  the  poisoned,  became  sickly,  and  gradually  lost  most  of  their  leaves  within 
the  ensuing  fortnight.  So  complete  a  negative  result  forbade  any  definite  conclu- 
sions. 


or  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  51 

Later  in  the  year,  during  the  month  of  September,  and  early  in  October,  I  re- 
peated these  experiments  upon  the  following  plants,  viz : — 

A  young  shoot  of  the  common  bean,  four  inches  high. 

A  young  dahlia  six  inches  high,  and  constituting  the  whole  plant. 

A  long  flower,  or  budding  flower-stalk  of  medicinal  colchicum,  C.  Autumnale, 
about  ten  inches  high. 

Three  branches  of  geranium,  growing  on  a  large  and  healthy  plant. 

A  small  succulent  garden  weed,  three  inches  high,  of  a  species  unknown  to  me. 

I  had  no  duplicates  of  the  dahlia,  bean,  and  weed  mentioned  above,  which  I 
could  wound  as  a  means  of  comparison,  but  in  the  case  of  the  colchicum,  I  wounded, 
without  poisoning,  the  remaining  flower-stalk,  which  was  rather  more  fully  in 
bloom,  and  in  the  geraniums  I  wounded,  in  like  manner,  three  branches,  of  sizes 
about  equal  to  those  of  the  stalks  which  I  both  wounded  and  poisoned. 

The  mode  of  introducing  the  venom,  which,  in  these  cases  was  perfectly  fresh, 
and  of  tried  and  known  potency,  I  varied  in  several  ways.  In  the  dahlia  and  col- 
chicum I  merely  raised  the  outer  bark  longitudinally,  and  with  a  fine  pipette  slip- 
ped one  drop  of  venom  into  the  opening.  I  then  bent  the  stalk  slightly,  so  that 
the  divided  bark  would  rise  a  little  from  the  surface  beneath,  and  thus  hold  the 
venom  by  capillary  attraction. 

The  weed  was  inoculated  by  splitting  it  near  to  the  earth,  and  inserting  a  full 
drop  of  venom.  The  geranium  branches  were  each  surrounded  by  a  little  lip  of 
wax,  within  which  I  put  from  one  to  two  drops  of  the  venom,  and  then  filled  the 
cups  with  four  or  five  drops  of  water,  having  previously  punctured  the  stems,  so 
as  to  place  the  incisions  below  the  level  of  the  poisoned  water.  The  water  was 
renewed  twice  a  day,  and  into  one  of  the  geranium  branches  I  introduced,  three 
days  later,  about  one-third  of  a  drop  of  venom,  just  above  the  wax.  The  cups  fell 
off  after  four  or  five  days,  but  neither  in  the  bean,  dahlia,  colchicum,  or  geranium, 
did  the  leaves  die,  or  the  plants  in  any  way  suffer,  although  they  were  watched 
daily,  during  three  weeks. 

The  weed  alluded  to  was  an  accidental  growth  in  the  pot  with  the  geranium. 
It  appeared  to  droop  two  days  after  the  poisoning.  This  was  due,  I  presume,  to 
a  very  cold  night,  after  which  the  plants  were  carried  into  the  house,  when  the 
one  in  question  very  soon  revived.  In  many  successive  efforts  to  poison  other 
plants  with  venom,  I  failed  in  every  instance. 

It  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  statements,  that  the  venom  of  the  Crotalus  is  not 
fatal  to  the  growth  of  the  lower  orders  of  vegetable  existence;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, no  such  definite  inference  can  be  drawn  with  regard  to  plants  higher  in  the 
scale.  My  own  experience,  it  is  true,  would,  if  considered  alone,  entitle  me  to 
assume  the  inactivity  of  Crotalus  venom  within  the  tissues  of  the  plants  essayed, 
and  this  conclusion  would  gain  value,  also,  from  what  we  know  of  the  mode  of  its 
influence  upon  animals,  and  from  the  facts  which  we  have  made  known  as  to  the 
power  of  some  forms  of  vegetative  life  to  defy  its  influence.  But,  in  the  face  of 
strong  affirmative  results,  such  as  were  obtained  by  Dr.  Sahsbury,  I  am  unwilling 
to  draw  from  my  own  negative  experiments  the  same  definite  opinion  which  I 
should  otherwise  have  felt  authorized  to  base  upon  them.     As  I  was  indisposed  to 


52  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

allow  the  question  to  remain  without  further  answer,  I  made  a  number  of  experi- 
ments upon  the  ability  of  seeds  to  germinate  in  the  venom,  hoping  to  obtain  in  this 
manner  a  more  complete  solution  of  my  doubts. 

Here,  owing  to  the  circumstances  of  the  experiment,  the  result  may  again  be  a 
negative  one,  and  may  still  be  open  to  all  the  doubts  which  encumber  negative  results. 

Experiment. — October  5th,  9  A.  M.  I  placed  in  each  of  two  short  test-tubes 
eight  drops  of  water,  and  to  one  of  them  added  one  and  a  half  drops  of  venom  of 
known  activity.  On  both  tubes,  upon  the  surface  of  each  of  the  fluids,  I  laid  a 
mesh  of  cotton  wool,  and  upon  it  in  each  vessel  fifteen  canary  seeds.  The  water 
in  the  two  tubes  was  kept  always  at  the  same  level,  by  the  daily  addition  of  the 
requisite  amount  of  fluid.  On  the  ninth  day,  none  of  the  seeds  in  the  venom  had 
germinated,  while  two  in  the  water  were  sprouting. 

Twenty-one  days  after  the  observation  began,  the  venom-tube  offered  no  signs 
of  seed-growth,  and  smelled  very  unpleasantly.  The  germs  in  the  water  were  nearly 
half  an  inch  in  height. 

As  the  small  number  of  seeds  which  germinated  in  the  water  made  it  possible 
that  none  but  incapable  seeds  might  have  fallen  to  the  share  of  the  venom-tube,  I 
repeated  the  exjieriment  without  other  variation  of  the  circumstances  than  the 
substitution  of  mignionette  seed  for  those  last  employed,  and  the  use  of  a  bell  glass 
to  limit  the  too  rapid  evaporation.  Twenty  seeds  were  allotted  to  each  vase.  This 
observation  began  Oct.  15  th.  On  Oct.  24  th,  none  of  the  seeds  in  the  venom  cap- 
sule had  sprouted,  while  three  of  those  in  the  water  were  in  healthy  bud,  and  some 
a  little  above  the  mesh  of  cotton.  One  additional  test  was  required  to  add  to  these 
observations  all  the  strength  that  could  be  given  to  them.  It  was  possible  that 
the  venom,  in  decomposing,  had  lost  its  potency,  and,  as  detailed  previously,  I 
tested  it  on  animals,  but  still  found  it  actively  poisonous.  At  various  times  these 
experiments  were  again  and  again  repeated,  with  slight  modifications,  but  with  no 
other  result  than  continual  failure  to  germinate  on  the  part  of  seeds  put  in  con- 
tact with  venom. 

It  appeared  probable  from  these  observations,  that  venom  has  the  power  to 
prevent  the  germination  of  the  seeds  of  plants  such  as  those  which  I  have  mentioned 
above. 

Action  of  Venom  on  Animal  Life. — We  have  now  reached  a  point  where  we  turn 
from  the  influence  of  the  venom  upon  vegetables,  to  study  its  power  to  affect  animal 
existence. 

In  place  of  doubtfully  deciding  as  to  the  cause  of  death,  we  are  summoned  to 
witness  the  operations  of  a  substance  which  sometimes  acts  with  a  potency  so  swift 
as  to  defy  observation,  and  which  has  a  power  to  alter  the  blood  and  tissues  in  a 
manner,  and  with  a  celerity,  which  is  a  source  of  unending  wonder,  even  to  one 
who,  by  daily  repetitions,  has  become  familiar  with  the  changes  thus  produced. 

In  the  course  of  study  now  before  us,  I  shall  examine,  as  fully  as  possible,  the 
effect  of  the  venom  upon  cold-blooded  animals,  including  the  Crotalus,  and  upon 
various  classes  of  warm-blooded  animals. 

After  this  general  survey  of  the  symptoms  and  pathology  of  the  acute  and 
chronic  forms  of  venom  poisoning,  in  these  various  classes  of  animals,  I  shall  ex- 


OF  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  53 

amine  separately  the  influence  of  the  venom  upon  the  muscles,  nerves,  bloodvessels, 
and  blood  itself.  This  general  practical  examination  will  enable  us  to  review  the 
theories  hitherto  in  vogue,  and  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  the  proximate  mode  in 
which  this  mysterious  substance  may  be  supposed  to  act. 

In  following  the  track  here  pointed  out,  I  shall  relate,  at  length,  the  cases, 
symptoms,  etc.,  observed  in  a  considerable  number  of  animals,  and  I  shall  allude, 
briefly,  to  a  still  larger  number  whose  cases  it  will  be  needless  to  state  in  detail. 
Although  I  shall  thus  record  more  experiments  than  have  been  made  by  any  other 
observer  who  has  studied  the  subject  of  Crotalus  poisoning,  it  will,  I  fear,  be  but 
too  plain  that  the  research  is  one  which  demands  the  labors  of  many,  and  is, 
indeed,  of  such  a  nature  that  some  of  the  questions  involved  in  it,  can  only  be 
settled  by  persons  of  greater  leisure  than  myself,  and  who,  at  the  same  time,  are 
so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  procure  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  snakes. 

It  would,  perhaps,  be  more  in  order  to  begin  this  section  of  our  subject  by  an 
examination  of  the  relations  of  serpent  venom  to  the  absorbing  surfaces.  It  will, 
however,  prove  a  convenience,  as  well  as  an  economy  of  space,  if,  in  place  of  this 
we  defer  the  study  of  the  absorption  of  venom  until  we  have  fully  considered  its 
effects  on  animals ;  since,  in  so  doing,  we  shall  be  obliged  to  detail  many  of  the 
facts  which  bear  upon  the  deferred  question. 

It  will  be  remembered  that,  upon  page  50  of  this  Essay,  I  stated  that,  on  several 
occasions  I  had  noticed  the  production  of  fungi  in  moist  venom,  long  kept  upon 
my  table,  in  an  atmosphere  of  from  64°  to  70°  F.  I  have  also  observed  in  the 
same  and  in  other  specimens  of  venom  long  kept,  and  somewhat  diluted,  that  after 
seven  to  ten  days,  the  poison  acquired  an  odor  of  a  peculiar  and  very  disgusting 
character.  The  production  of  this  animalized  and  indescribable  stench  was  accom- 
panied by  the  appearance  of  vibriones,  and,  a  few  days  later,  of  rotifers  and  other 
minute  forms  of  animalcular  life.  The  occurrence  of  these  little  beings  in  a  fluid 
so  deadly,  prompted  me  to  learn  whether  or  not  it  had  lost,  by  decomposition,  any 
part  of  its  specific  nature  as  a  poison;  for,  although  I  was  aware  that  the  cuticles 
of  higher  animals  opposed  a  perfect  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  venom,  I  did  not 
suppose  that  the  delicate  organisms  here  spoken  of  could,  by  any  possibility,  escape 
its  action,  when  born  and  developed  within  it.  At  all  events,  this  view  opened 
to  me  a  channel  for  observation  of  which  I  had  not  thought  before,  and  whose 
value  I  therefore  proceeded  to  test,  as  stated  on  page  52,  by  determining  what  power 
yet  remained  in  the  venom  which  had  become  the  nidus  of  so  much  active  vitality. 

It  was  my  intention  to  examine,  in  the  next  place,  the  effect  of  the  venom 
upon  leeches,  fish,  eels,  and  crustacean  animals,  but  for  reasons  which  it  is  needless 
to  relate,  I  was  obliged  to  postpone  these  observations  until  some  future  occasion. 

I  was  the  more  desirous,  however,  of  making  these  examinations,  because  Fon- 
tana  had  already  decided  that  leeches,  snails,  and  slugs,  were  unaffected  by  the 
venom  of  the  viper,  and  because  some  of  his  numerous  observations  in  this  direction 
were  open  to  criticism,  from  his  having  failed  to  observe  the  animals  as  long  as  he 
should  have  done  after  the  infliction  of  the  poisoned  wound,  a  precaution  which,  as 
I  shall  show,  is  absolutely  essential  when  studying  the  influence  of  the  venom 
upon  cold-blooded  animals. 


54  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

Action  of  Yenom  on  Frogs. — This  industrious  and  most  able  writer  is  also  tlie  only 
one  who  has  recorded  the  effects  of  the  viper  poison  on  frogs/  and,  so  far  as  I. 
am  aware,  no  one  has  repeated  these  observations.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he 
did  not  state  the  size  of  the  frogs  bitten,  since  in  such  facts,  or  in  the  fresher 
state  of  his  snakes,  might  have  been  found  the  reasons  why  the  frogs  which  were 
subjected  to  the  Crotalus  venom,  usually  lived  so  much  longer  than  those  upon 
which  the  learned  Abbe  experimented.  In  the  total  want  of  knowledge  as  to 
the  power  of  rattlesnake  poison  over  frogs,  I  shall  quote  the  passage  from  Fontana, 
in  which  he  relates  the  results  he  obtained  when  making  use  of  viper  poison. 

He  says,  "  I  procured  fifty  of  the  largest  and  strongest  frogs  I  could  meet  with. 
I  had  each  of  them  bit  by  a  viper,  some  in  the  thighs,  others  in  the  legs,  back,  head, 
etc.  Some  of  them  died  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  others  in  an  hour,  and  others 
again  in  two,  three  hours,  or  somewhat  more.  There  were  some  again  that  were 
not  affected,  whilst  others  that  did  not  die  became  nevertheless  swelled.  There 
were,  likewise,  others  among  them  that  fell  into  a  languishing  state,  their  hind  legs 
that  had  been  bit,  continuing  very  weak,  and  even  paralytic.  In  some  of  them  I 
contented  myself  with  introducing  cautiously  into  a  wound,  made  with  a  lancet  at  the 
very  instant,  a  drop  of  venom.  These  last,  however,  lived  longer  than  those  I  had 
bit ;  neither  of  them,  however,  escaped.  I  constantly  took  the  precaution  to  prevent 
the  venom  I  introduced  into  the  wound  being  carried  out  by  the  blood  that  flowed 
from  it.  Some  of  these  frogs  swelled  very  much,  others  but  little,  and  others  not 
at  all.  The  wounds  of  almost  all  of  them  were  inflamed  more  or  less.  There  were 
some,  however,  that  died  very  suddenly,  without  the  smallest  mark  of  inflamma- 
tion. A  short  time  after  these  animals  had  been  either  bit,  or  wounded  and  ven- 
omed,  the  loss  of  their  muscular  force,  as  well  as  that  of  the  motion  of  their 
extremities,  was  very  evident.  When  they  were  set  at  liberty  they  no  longer 
leaped,  but  dragged  their  legs  and  bodies  along  with  great  difficulty,  and  could 
scarcely  withdraw  their  thighs  when  they  were  pricked  with  a  needle,  of  the  pain 
of  which  they  seemed  almost  insensible.  By  degrees  they  became  motionless  and 
paralytic  in  every  part  of  the  body,  and  after  continuing  a  very  short  time  in  this 
state  died." 

With  this  exception,  and  a  few  further  remarks  by  the  same  author,  we  are 
without  information  as  to  the  effect  of  viper  venom  upon  the  frog. 

Of  the  effects  of  Crotalus  venom  upon  the  same  animal,  we  know  as  little,  and, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  only  a  single  recorded  experiment  of  this  kind  is  to  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  American  authors  f  their  only  observations  upon  cold-blooded 
reptiles  having  been  made  on  the  Crotalus  itself,  or  other  serpents.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to  study  the  details  of  the  experiments  which  I  have  made  upon  cold- 
blooded animals. 

Upon  classifying  the  cases  before  us,  it  will  be  discovered  that  they  divide  them- 

1  Pontana  on  Poisons,  Chapter  VI.  p.  34,  vol.  i.     Translation  by  J.  Skinner,  London,  1T87. 
=  A  single  observation  by  Harlan. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  55 

selves  naturally  and  conveniently  into  two  classes,  which  I  shall  term  acute  and 
chronic,  or  primary  and  secondary  poisoning. 

While  in  the  batrachia  the  distinction  between  these  two  sets  of  cases  is  suflQciently 
clear,  it  is  less  well  marked  than  in  warm-blooded  animals.  At  the  time  I  was 
engaged  upon  this  portion  of  my  investigation,  the  active  serpents  in  my  collection 
were  not  so  large  as  those  which  I  afterwards  received.  This  may  account  for  the 
fact  that,  although  I  have  some  records  of  frogs  more  or  less  acutely  poisoned,  the 
majority  of  those  bitten  lived  long  enough  to  exhibit,  in  a  marked  manner,  the 
secondary  lesions  which  I  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to  describe. 

The  class  of  cases  which  I  shall  term  acute,  were  marked  by  the  negative  cha- 
racter of  the  symptoms.  In  them  the  local  signs  of  poisoning  were  very  slight, 
and  the  changes  in  the  blood  which  occurred  where  life  was  prolonged  after  a 
serious  bite,  were  absent,  or  but  very  slightly  marked. 

Experiment. — A  large  frog  recently  caught,  was  attached  to  a  string  and  lowered 
into  a  cage  containing  four  snakes,  none  of  which  were  over  thirty-six  inches 
long.  As  I  had  often  observed,  no  provocation  induced  them  to  strike  the  frog,  and, 
therefore,  after  many  vain  elForts,  I  drew  a  snake  into  the  snake-tube,  and  placed  the 
frog  in  its  jaws.  The  serpent  bit  with  eagerness,  and  the  frog,  uttering  a  cry,  leaped 
from  its  re-opened  jaws  to  the  floor,  and  for  a  few  moments  used  its  legs  so  well  as 
to  avoid  being  caught.  When  at  length  it  was  secured,  I  searched  in  vain  for  the 
fang  wound,  which  must  have  been  very  small ;  I  did  not  discover  it  until  after 
death,  although  I  was  sure  that  the  skin  had  been  penetrated,  because  a  large 
bubble  of  air  had  found  entry  to  the  dorsal  sub-cuticular  sac. 

The  presence  of  air  in  this  situation  often  enabled  me  to  be  confident  that  the 
fang  had  pierced  the  skin.  It  is  occasioned  by  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  serpent 
to  withdraw  its  fang,  which,  catching,  raises  the  loose  skin,  and  creating  a  partial 
vacuum,  thus  draws  air  alongside  of  the  fang  into  the  subjacent  cavities.  A  little 
quivering  on  the  right  flank,  also,  caused  me  to  suspect  that  as  the  part  bitten. 
Except  in  dogs,  who  shiver  so  much  from  mere  fright,  the  local  muscular  twitchings 
alluded  to  are  also  of  some  value  in  calling  attention  to  the  part  bitten.  Two  hours 
after  this  frog  was  poisoned,  it  was  dead,  having  exhibited  during  the  interval  occa- 
sional convulsive  motions  of  the  limbs. 

P.  M.  Dissection. — As  soon  as  all  motions,  reflex  and  other,  were  at  an  end,  the 
thorax  and  belly  were  laid  open.  The  intestines  responded  to  irritants.  The  heart 
was  beating  feebly,  but  in  all  of  its  cavities,  and  was  large  and  dark.  It  ceased  to 
pulsate  at  the  close  of  three  hours  and  ten  minutes  after  the  poisoning,  and  on  being 
opened,  was  found  to  contain  blood  which  coagulated  perfectly  after  short  exposure. 
The  clot  was  well  formed  and  firm.  The  muscles  were  irritable  to  all  forms  of 
stimulus  during  eleven  hours,  and,  as  I  have  usually  observed,  this  property  lasted 
longest  in  the  muscles  under  the  chin.^  Nervous  irritability  existed  until  the  close 
of  the  fourth  hour.     The  seat  of  the  wound  was  the  right  flank,  into  the  muscles 


*  Brown-Sequard,  Bernard,  Vulpian,  and  before  them,  Fontana,  have  noted  the  long  retention  of  irri- 
tability by  the  diaphragm  muscles.  In  the  frog,  the  sub-mental  group  corresponds  in  function  to  these, 
as  I  have  shown  elsewhere. 


56  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

of  which  the  fangs  had  entered  obUquely,  both  teeth  taking  effect.  There  was 
moi'e  serum  than  usual  in  the  dorsal  sac,  through  which  the  weapons  passed,  and 
their  track  was  marked  by  a  Httle  darkening  of  the  neighboring  muscles. 

In  twenty-four  hours  the  muscular  parts  about  the  bite  were  almost  diffluent, 
while  the  rest  of  the  frog  had  no  odor,  or  any  other  sign  of  putrefaction. 

Experiment. — A  large  snake,  from  which  I  had  in  vain  attempted  to  extract  venom, 
was  secured  in  the  snalte-box  as  usual.  Before  releasing  it,  I  placed  a  small  frog, 
about  four  or  five  inches  long,  in  its  mouth,  so  that  when  it  bit,  which  it  did 
fiercely  enough,  the  fang  entered  the  belly.  Slight  local  quivering  of  the  nearer 
muscles,  and  some  convulsive  extensions  of  the  hind  legs,  were  the  only  marked 
signs,  and  no  notable  changes  in  the  pupil  was  perceived  until  death  took  place,  when 
it  dilated.  At  the  close  of  sixty-two  minutes,  neither  voluntary  or  reflex  motions 
could  be  elicited. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  wound  exhibited  no  local  evidences  of  poisoning.  The  aper- 
ture in  the  skin  was  small,  and  but  one  fang  had  entered.  In  passing  through,  or 
out  of  the  sub-cuticular  abdominal  walls,  the  fang  tore  these  structures,  so  as  to  make 
a  distinct  opening,  through  which  a  little  serum  from  the  dorsal  sac  had  passed,  and 
carrying  with  it  a  little  blood,  had  found  its  way  into  the  peritoneal  cavity.  None 
of  the  abdominal  viscera  were  transfixed.  The  ventricle  of  the  heart  beat  only 
for  fifteen  minutes  after  it  was  exposed.  The  auricles  beat  feebly  for  one  hour  and 
forty  minutes  after  this  period.  The  nervous  irritability  was  extinct  everywhere 
thirty  minutes  after  voluntary  and  reflex  movement  ceased,  while  the  muscular 
ix'ritability  lasted  but  half  an  hour  longer,  and  was  thus  entirely  absent  when  the 
auricles  of  the  heart  were  still  pulsating.    The  blood  in  the  heart  clotted  on  exposure. 

Experiment. — A  small  snake  was  teased  until  it  struck  a  frog  of  medium  size,  and 
was  itself  so  caught  that  it  hung  for  a  moment,  when  I  drew  the  frog  out  by  pulling 
on  the  string  with  which  I  had  secured  it.  Upon  inspection,  it  seemed  that  the  fang 
had  struck  upon  the  spine.  On  being  released,  the  frog  ajDpeared  very  uneasy,  and 
for  ten  or  twelve  minutes  was  incessantly  leaping  about  in  the  glass  vessel  in  which 
it  had  been  placed.  At  the  close  of  half  an  hour,  the  frog  became  suddenly  quiet, 
and  shortly  after  was  attacked  with  a  general  quivering  of  the  muscles,  followed  by 
the  loss  of  volitional  control.  Slight  reflex  acts  were  still  capable  of  being  pro- 
duced, when  the  limbs  were  violently  stimulated  by  mechanical  means,  but  at  the 
close  of  an  hour  from  the  period  of  poisoning,  these  also  ceased,  the  eyelids  became 
motionless  when  touched,  and  the  frog  being  considered  dead,  was  opened. 

P.  M.  Section. — One  fang  was  found  to  have  entered  the  spine,  and  slightly 
wounded  the  medulla,  which  was  rather  too  much  injected  with  blood,  but  other- 
wise unaltered  in  structure.  All  the  remaining  viscera  were  healthy,  and  the  heart 
was  still  acting  with  all  its  cavities  as  late  as  two  hours  and  a  half  after  the  poison- 
ing, when  the  observation  stopped  for  a  time.  Four  hours  later,  the  organ  had 
ceased  to  pulsate,  and  was  only  possessed  of  a  slight  localized  irritability  under 
stimulus.     The  blood  was  well  coagulated. 

The  above  quoted  instances  were  the  only  cases  of  rapid  death  which  I  was  called 
upon  to  observe  in  this  class  of  animals.  Their  discussion  will  occupy  us  at  another 
time. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  67 

From  a  large  number  of  instances  of  death  in  frogs,  from  the  secondary  or 
chronic  action  of  the  venom,  I  have  selected  the  most  interesting,  and  those  which 
best  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  symptoms. 

ExperimeMt. — Temperature  84°  F.  A  very  large  frog  was  struck  by  a  snake  two 
and  a  half  feet  long,  on  the  back  of  the  pelvis,  upon  the  left  side.  Twenty-five  hours 
and  five  minutes  after  the  blow,  the  frog  was  re-examined,  and  found  to  be  inert 
and  sluggish,  but  still  able  to  move.  During  the  interval,  it  occupied  a  glass  jar 
containing  a  large  wetted  sponge,  and  partly  open  at  top.  The  back  of  the  frog  was 
darker  than  usual,  and  presented  a  fluctuating  mass  of  fluid  beneath  the  skin.  The 
eyes  were  natural,  the  respirations  occurred  now  and  then,  and  the  lymph-hearts, 
at  the  end  of  the  spine  were  acting  as  usual.  One  day  later  the  frog's  condition 
was  much  as  before.  On  the  third  day  it  was  motionless,  except  under  excessive 
stimulus,  when  it  leaped  once  or  twice,  or  if  placed  on  its  back,  turned  itself  over 
with  great  difficulty.  On  the  fourth  day  the  sweUing  on  the  back  diminished 
somewhat,  and  the  subcuticular  sacs  of  the  legs  became  swollen. 

From  this  time  the  frog  grew  weaker,  although  put  in  water  daily  for  an  hour 
or  two,  and  every  pains  taken  to  preserve  it  in  a  healthy  state.  It  died  during  my 
absence  on  the  fifth  day. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  muscles  in  the  track  of  the  fang  which  had  not  entered 
deeply,  were  dark  in  color,  and  underwent  extreme  decomposition  within  twenty- 
four  hours,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  was  not  sensibly  affected.  About  the 
wound,  in  the  dorsal  sac,  were  large  quantities  of  bloody  serum,  which  coagulated 
feebly  upon  exposure.  The  other  sacs,  wherever  examined,  were  also  filled  with 
bloody  serum,  and  a  similar  fluid  was  found  in  the  peritoneum  and  pericardium. 
Bloody  mucus  flowed  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  and  the  stomach  and  mucous 
surface  of  the  intestines  were  stained  with  frequent  patches  of  extravasated  blood. 
The  lungs  were  shrunken,  but  contained  no  blood.  The  heart,  which  was  pale 
and  unirritable,  contained  only  two  minute  and  very  pallid  clots,  adherent  to  the 
auricular  walls.  The  muscles  of  the  legs  and  the  flanks  responded  feebly  to  gal- 
vanism during  one  hour  and  thirty  minutes  after  exposure.  Those  of  the  forelegs 
were  also  irritable,  but,  singularly  enough,  the  muscles  under  the  jaw  had  lost  their 
power  to  act.  The  muscles  were  generally  pale,  owing  to  the  great  loss  of  blood.' 
The  sheaths  or  fascia  were  stained  with  blood  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  body,  and 
even  between  the  separate  muscles  and  the  bone.  There  was  no  post-mortem  rigor 
observed. 

Experiment. — Temperature  74°  F.  A  large  frog  was  bitten  fiercely  by  a  snake 
three  feet  long,  which  thrust  one  fang  deeply  into  the  left  thigh.  The  other  fang 
missed  the  leg  entirely.  During  the  five  succeeding  hours,  the  subject  was  watched 
by  an  assistant,  who  described  the  wound  as  exuding  bloody  serum,  while  the  animal 
remained  -in  one  position,  quite  motionless.  It  died  during  the  following  night, 
when  unobserved,  and  was  found  the  next  day  in  a  state  of  rigor,  a  good  deal 
shrunken,  although  great  pains  had  been  taken  to  keep  it  constantly  moistened. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  bitten  leg  was  greatly  swollen,  and  the  muscles  beneath  were 
livid  with  extravasated  blood.  Everywhere  in  the  injured  limb  the  muscles  were 
deeply  stained  with  blood,  and  this  appearance  was  not  confined  to  this  limb,  but 


58  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

existed  also  in  the  leg  not  bitten.  About  the  bite,  the  muscular  structure  was 
almost  diffluent,  and  could  be  torn  with  the  utmost  ease.  A  slight  effusion  of  blood 
was  found  under  both  forelegs,  in  the  axillary  spaces.  Elsewhere  the  organs  were 
healthy.  The  heart  was  unirritable,  and  contained  a  little  thin  uncoagulated  blood. 
Nervous  irritability  was  extinct,  and  that  of  the  muscles  absent,  except  under  the 
chin,  where  it  remained  for  an  hour  or  more  after  exposure. 

Experiment. — Temperature  74°  F.  A  second  frog  of  large  size  was  bitten  twice  by 
the  same  snake  which  had  just  bitten  the  last  one.  On  each  occasion,  a  single  fang 
entered,  the  leg  and  the  thigh  being  thus  wounded.  From  these  wounds,  a  bloody 
serum  continually  oozed,  until  I  ceased  to  observe  it.  Certainly,  a  drachm  or  more 
of  fluid  exuded  in  this  manner.  On  the  second  day,  matters  were  as  before.  On 
the  third,  the  frog  was  very  sluggish.  The  bitten  leg  was  enormously  swollen  to 
the  very  end  of  the  toes,  which,  on  being  held  up  to  the  light,  were  seen  to  be 
distended  with  red  serum.  The  skin  of  this  member  was  also  soaked,  in  places, 
with  extravasated  blood.  On  the  fourth  morning,  the  frog  was  found  to  have  died 
during  the  night. 

P.  M.  Section. — Slight  rigor  mortis.  The  bitten  leg  was  literally  soaked  in  blood 
to  the  extreme  edges  of  the  web,  and  was  everywhere  swollen  by  this  local  accu- 
mulation. The  flexors  of  the  thigh  were  filled  with  blood,  so  as  to  be  dark  crim- 
son throughout  their  thickness.  A  little  bloody  fluid  was  present  in  most  of  the 
sub-cuticular  sacs.  The  heart  was  pale,  bloodless,  and  unirritable.  The  other 
organs  wer-e  normal.  The  nerves  and  muscles  proved  to  have  lost  their  power  to 
react  under  stimulus.  The  little  blood  found  in  the  vessels  was  diffluent.  As  in 
some  other  cases,  the  fluid  of  the  dorsal  lymphatic  sac  coagulated  feebly  upon  expo- 
sure to  the  air. 

Experiment. — Temperature  73°  F.  A  small  frog  was  bitten  on  the  back,  below  the 
scapula,  by  a  snake  about  three  feet  long,  which  had  already  used  its  fangs  once 
within  twenty-four  hours.  The  fang-mark  was  not  visible,  but  from  the  presence 
of  air  in  the  dorsal  sac,  T  was  convinced  that  the  weapon  had  entered.  The 
muscles  about  the  bitten  part  immediately  began  to  quiver,  and  this  motion  soon 
extended  to  both  flanks.  The  frog  became  rapidly  weak,  and  within  an  hour  and 
a  half  could  not  turn  when  laid  on  its  back,  and  was  unable  to  use  its  hind  legs. 
At  this  time  the  pupils  were  contracted,  the  eyes  half  closed,  and  the  lids  of  the 
right  organ  completely  insensible,  the  left  one  nearly  so.  The  frog  shortly  after- 
wards lost  all  voluntary  power,  even  in  the  forelegs,  but  exhibited  slight  reflex 
phenomena  up  to  the  fifth  hour,  when  it  was  apparently  dead. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  wound  passed  through  the  muscles  below  the  scapula,  and 
into  the  liver  and  peritoneal  cavity,  which  contained  a  little  bloody  fluid.  The 
heart  was  beating  forty-four  to  the  minute,  auricles  and  ventricle  acting.  Half  an 
hour  later  the  auricles  alone  were  acting,  and  these  were  arrested  during  the  en- 
suing period  of  ten  hours,  although  carefully  protected  from  desiccation.  The 
nerves  everywhere  were  highly  irritable,  but  this  passed  away  completely  within 
half  an  hour.  The  muscular  irritability  remained  good  during  two  hours.  Ten 
hours  later,  no  muscle  responded  to  irritants.  The  small  amount  of  blood  found 
in  the  heart  was  fluid.     It  is  to  be  remarked  that,  in  some  of  these  cases,  nothing 


OF  THE  VENOM  OE  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  59 

was  more  difficult  than  to  ascertain  whether  the  minute  amount  of  blood  present 
was  coagulated  or  not.  Both  lungs  were  gorged  with  blood,  and  the  intestines 
were  dotted  with  specks  of  extravasated  blood,  although  no  free  blood  was  found 
in  the  intestinal  canal. 

The  cases  above  quoted  illustrate  nearly  every  peculiarity  of  the  effects  of  the 
venom  upon  batrachia,  whether  affecting  them  rapidly  or  slowly. 

It  is  necessary  to  the  completion  of  this  study,  that  we  recount,  also,  the  manner 
in  which  the  dried  venom  of  the  Crotalus  acted  upon  these  cold-blooded  animals. 
In  one  respect  its  action  is  undoubtedly  peculiar. 

I  have  already  alluded,  in  several  instances,  to  the  dried  venom  of  the  Crotalus. 
The  specimen  used  in  the  following  experiments  was  given  to  me  by  Prof.  Leidy, 
who  received  it  from  my  friend  Prof.  Wm.  A.  Hammond.  It  was  obtained  in 
Kansas,  in  the  autumn  of  1857,  by  a  process  similar  to  that  which  I  have  described 
on  page  28.  It  had  been  allowed  to  dry  into  thin  yellow  scales,  and  was  preserved 
in  this  condition  in  a  small  bottle,  not  very  well  secured  from  the  air. 

Prof.  Christison  had  already  stated  that  cobra  poison,  fourteen  years  old,  was  still 
effective.     Mangili^  had  ascertained  the  same  of  viper  poison  eighteen  months  old. 

Orfila,'  in  recounting  the  experiments  of  the  author  last  named,  observes  that 
they  proved  contradictory  of  the  statements  of  Fontana,^  an  assertion  which  is  only 
partially  correct,  since  the  learned  Abbe  distinctlj^  states  that  viper  poison  is  active 
after  being  preserved  for  several  years  in  the  cavity  of  a  dry  fang.  He  adds, 
moreover,  that  the  powdered  and  dried  venom  had  been  kept  by  him  for  several 
months  without  loss  of  its  power,  and  he  also  adduces  Eedi's*  experience  to  the 
same  effect.  At  the  close  of  these  statements  he  remarks,  however,  that  the 
poison  may  lose  its  potency  by  being  kept,  and  that  this  took  place  frequently 
when  he  attempted  to  preserve  it  longer  than  ten  months.  As  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  see,  this  is  not  the  only  instance  where  the  learned  Abbe  has  been  misquoted 
and  misunderstood.  Few  authors  of  such  merit  as  Fontana  have  had  so  little  justice 
at  the  hands  of  those  who  have  followed  them,  and  this  remark  applies  not  alone 
to  his  work  on  the  Viper,  but  to  his  researches  on  Ticunas,  and  to  other  labors, 
many  of  the  results  of  which  have  been  assiduously  re-discovered  by  more  modern 
observers. 

Experiment.  Poisoning  hy  Dried  Venom. — Temperature  79°  F.  A  frog  of  middle 
size  received  in  the  muscles  of  the  back  a  small  quantity  of  dried  venom.  An  un- 
envenomed  wound  of  corresponding  size  was  inflicted  upon  the  other  side  of  the 
spine.  On  inspection,  twenty-one  hours  after,  the  frog  was  found  seated  and  quiet. 
During  half  an  hour  no  respiration  occurred.  Upon  touching  the  eye,  the  frog 
breathed  once  and  moved  its  entire  body,  after  which  no  further  motion  could  be 
provoked,  and  the  animal  seemed  to  be  dead. 

P.  M.  Section. — On  comparison,  the  two  wounds  were  so  much  alike,  that  no  dif- 


»  Maugili,  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  Fevrier,  ISIT,  from  Giornale  di  Fisica  Chimica,  etc., 
vol.  ix.  p.  458. 

"  Orfila,  Traite  de  Toxicologie,  t.  ii.  p.  852. 
'  Fontana,  vol.  i.  Chapter  XXII.  p.  65. 
*  Redi,  see  also  Russell,  p.  63. 


60  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

ference  could  be  perceived  between  tbem.  Not  the  least  sign  of  swelling,  conges- 
tion, or  inflammation,  was  visible  about  either.  The  heart,  which  was  large  and 
dark,  beat  fifteen  in  the  minute,  all  its  cavities  acting  feebly  until  it  was  cut  out,  at 
the  close  of  half  an  hour. 

The  nerves  of  the  legs  were  irritable  for  rather  over  an  hour,  and  the  muscular 
excitability  endured  but  two  hours  longer,  when  post-mortem  rigor  came  on.  The 
cardiac  blood  coagulated  very  well. 

Experiment. — A  little  dried  venom  was  placed  in  the  muscles  of  the  thigh  of  a 
frog.  As  the  wound  bled  rather  freely,  a  second  portion  was  inserted  in  the  lumbar 
muscles.  The  frog  died  during  the  ensuing  night,  within  twenty-one  hours  of  the 
poisoning.  When  examined,  there  was  not  the  slightest  local  sign  of  the  presence 
of  venom,  nor  was  there  bloody  serum  in  any  of  the  lymphatic  sacs.  The  nerves 
and  muscles  were  unexcitable.  The  heart  was  at  rest,  and  was  not  irritable.  It 
contained  a  little  coagulated  blood.     Other  viscera  healthy. 

Experiment. — A  fang  recently  shed,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  dried  venom, 
was  buried  in  the  muscles  of  the  back.  After  death,  the  muscles  about  the  imbedded 
fang  were  softened,  and  dotted  with  points  of  blood.  A  little  bloody  serum  was 
found  in  the  cuticular  sac  of  the  wounded  thigh.  About  the  spot  wounded  with 
the  dry  venom,  there  was  a  little  redness,  but  no  softening  or  extravasation.  The 
remaining  symptoms  of  the  case  are  valueless  in  this  connection. 

The  chief  reason  for  quoting  the  above  cases  here,  is  to  call  attention  to  the 
almost  utter  absence  of  local  symptoms  when  dried  venom  was  used  in  frogs. 

Effect  of  the  Venom  upon  the  Crotalus. — This  research  resolves  itself  into  two 
propositions,  or  rather,  questions.  First,  Can  the  Crotalus  kill  its  own  species? 
Second,  can  any  individual  snake  destroy  itself? 

The  first  of  these  queries  has  been  more  or  less  completely  answered,  as  regards 
certain  Indian  snakes,  the  viper  of  Europe,  and  our  own  Crotalus.  KusselP  made 
a  Cobra  bite  a  nooni-paragoodoo  near  the  anus.  It  died  in  one  hour  and  a  quarter. 
A  little  local  discoloration  existed  about  the  wound,  and  the  lungs  were  full  of 
blood.  A  Cobra  bit  another  Cobra,  with  a  negative  result.  How  long  it  was 
observed,  is  not  stated. 

A  Coodum-nagoo  bit  a  Cobra,  the  two  fangs  taking  eflfect,  the  result,  as  before, 
being  negative.     All  of  these  snakes  were  venomous. 

A  Coodum-nagoo  bit  a  Tortutta,  a  harmless  serpent,  which  perished  within  two 
hours. 

Fontana's^  experiments  on  the  effect  of  the  venom  of  the  viper  upon  its  own 
kind,  were  briefly  as  follows  : — 

One  viper  was  bitten  by  another  several  times.  The  wounds  swelled  a  little. 
It  was  killed  by  Fontana  after  thirty-six  hours,  and  found  to  have  been  deeply 
wounded,  the  bites  being  a  little  inflamed  and  swollen. 

A  middle-sized  viper  received  from  two  large  ones  six  fang  wounds.  The  viper 
remained  agile,  and  was  well  at  the  end  of  four  days.     When  killed,  it  was  found 


'  Russell,  p.  56. 

=  Fontana,  vol.  i.  p.  29  et  seq.     Skinner's  translation. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  61 

to  have  been  bitten  through  and  through.  The  wounds  were  somewhat  inflamed. 
Five  other  vipers  thus  bitten,  did  not  die.  Length  of  observation  not  mentioned. 
Again,  a  portion  of  skin  having  been  removed  from  the  backs  of  four  vipers,  seven 
vipers  were  made  to  bite  them.  None  of  the  bitten  animals  died,  and  only  one  of 
them  was  at  all  languid,  and  had  a  little  swelling  about  the  wound.  Three  vipers 
were  wounded  in  the  back,  and  the  wound  filled  with  venom.  The  wounds  in- 
flamed, but  did  not  swell.  The  animals  seem  to  have  been  killed  at  the  end  of 
several  days.  A  viper  was  forced  to  bite  itself;  it  did  not  die.  Another  was  made 
to  bite  on  a  piece  of  jagged  glass,  so  that  its  mouth  was  wounded  as  the  poison 
flowed  into  it.     On  the  seventh  day  the  wounds  were  healed. 

M.  Bernard'  recently  repeated  Fontana's  experiments,  and  found  that  a  viper 
which  had  been  both  bitten  and  inoculated  artificially  with  venom,  died  on  the 
third  day.  Upon  this  experiment,  M.  Bernard  criticizes  Fontana,  as  having  ob- 
served the  viper  and  pigeons  together,  and  having  concluded  that,  because  the  cold- 
blooded animal  was  not  affected  so  soon  as  the  other,  that  it  was  incapable  of  being 
killed  by  the  venom.  As  we  have  seen,  however,  some  of  Fontana's  experiments 
were  observed  during  periods  of  time  much  greater  than  that  required  to  destroy 
the  viper  observed  by  M.  Bernai'd.  Thus,  although  Fontana  was  most  probably 
mistaken  in  his  conclusions,  he  did  not  fail  in  the  point  criticized,  from  any  glaring 
neglect  of  continued  observation. 

The  American  authorities  upon  this  matter  are  brief,  but  decided.  They  refer 
principally  to  the  power  of  the  snake  to  destroy  itself,  and  to  this  point,  indeed,  my 
own  experiments  have  been  directed,  since  it  was  plain  that  if  the  individual  could 
thus  be  made  to  kill  itself,  there  could  be  no  added  difficulty  in  comprehending  its 
ability  to  kill  its  fellows. 

Besides  including  the  general  proposition,  the  question  before  us  has  a  specific 
interest,  from  the  fact  that  snakes  are  often  accidentally  hurt  about  the  mouth,  and 
that  abrasions  of  this  cavity  must  frequently  occur.  We  are,  therefore,  called  upon 
to  say  why  the  snake  suffers  so  little  from  wounds  on  which  a  poison  so  deadly 
to  other  animals  must  fall  from  time  to  time. 

Our  own  writers"  state  almost  unanimously  that  the  Crotalus  is  able  to  kill  itself 
"Without  quoting  them  in  full,  it  is  enough  to  add  that  their  experiments  were 
commonly  made  by  switching  a  snake  until  it  turned  and  struck  itself  Death  is 
usually  described  as  following  within  a  few  minutes. 

At  the  close  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  warm-blooded  animals,  I  made  use  of 
some  of  my  largest  snakes  in  the  following  manner : — 

Experiment. — Temperature  65°  to  75°  F.  A  small  snake  about  twenty-seven 
inches  long,  was  caught  by  the  neck,  and  its  tail  placed  in  its  mouth.  It  bit,  but 
did  not  wound.     A  portion  of  skin  having  been  removed  from  the  back,  it  was 


1  Claude  Bernard,  Le9ons  sur  les  Effets  des  Substances  Toxiques,  etc.,  185T,  p.  291. 
Dr.  Brown-Sequard  appears  to  have  made  experiments  upon  the  Viper,  but  I  have  been  unable  to  find 
his  paper. 

=  Burnett,  p.  323. 


62  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

allowed  to  bite  again,  and  when  the  fangs  were  fixed  in  the  naked  muscles,  the 
upper  jaw  was  violently  pressed  downwards,  so  as  to  wound  the  part  deeply. 

Upon  the  sixth  day,  the  wound  was  covered  with  a  gray  exudation,  such  as  is 
usuallj'  found  upon  the  healing  surface  of  the  wounds  of  serpents.  This  snake  died 
on  the  fourteenth  day.  The  tissues  about  the  bite  were  congested,  the  gall-bladder 
full,  mucus  in  the  stomach,  the  venom  glands  dark  from  effused  blood. 

Experiment. — A  large  snake  was  made  to  bite  himself  twice,  in  a  space  near  the 
cloac,  where  the  skin  had  been  removed.  This  serpent  also  died  on  the  fourteenth 
day.  The  wound  was  apparently  healthy,  and  not  to  be  distinguished  from  any 
other  wound,  except  that  the  muscles  about  it  were  a  little  softened.  The  blood 
was  uncoagulated,  but  there  was  no  other  visible  lesion  of  any  internal  organ. 

Experiment. — On  the  same  day  a  large  snake,  fifty-six  inches  long,  had  a  small 
portion  of  the  skin  on  the  back  loosened  and  turned  over,  so  as  to  make  a  flap. 
On  this  wound  was  placed  about  a  drop  of  venom  from  the  snake  itself.  The  poison 
was  finally  thrust  into  a  number  of  superficial  cuts  made  in  the  muscles  on  which 
the  drop  fell.  On  the  second  day,  the  snake  being  well  to  appearance,  half  a  drop 
of  its  own  venom  was  put  in  a  superficial  wound  half  way  up  the  back.  This 
wound  seemed  to  excite  the  snake,  which,  on  being  replaced  in  its  box,  continued 
in  very  rapid  and  violent  motion  for  some  minutes,  as  though  in  pain.  On  the 
sixth  day,  both  wounds  were  covered  with  gray  exudation,  and  beneath,  the  mus- 
cles were  soft,  but  in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  no  effusion  of  blood  existed  about  the 
wound.     The  snake  was  sluggish,  and  indisposed  to  bite.     It  died  on  the  tenth  day. 

P.  M. — There  were  no  visceral  lesions,  except  that  one  lung  contained  a  little 
effused  blood.  The  venom  glands  were  dark  and  congested.  The  heart  blood 
coagulated  firmly,  thirty  minutes  after  removal.  In  all  probability  this  serpent 
died  from  some  other  cause  than  venom  poisoning. 

Ekperiment. — A  snake  forty-six  inches  long  was  secured,  and  the  skin  just  above 
the  anus  removed  from  a  space  of  about  one  inch  by  two.  On  this,  the  snake  bit  itself 
three  times,  throwing  out  a  good  deal  of  venom  which  was  thrust  deeply  into  the 
muscles  of  the  part.  On  the  second  day,  the  wounded  muscles  were  softened,  but 
no  blood  was  effused.  The  wound  had  been  re-covered  with  skin,  and  secured  by 
sutures.  At  the  close  of  two  weeks  this  snake  was  healthy,  and  bit  eagerly.  The 
wounds  were  partially  healed. 

Experiments. — Three  large  serpents  were  made  to  disgorge  their  venom,  and  the 
poison  from  each  snake  was  injected  under  the  skin  of  its  back,  with  the  aid  of  a 
small  syringe  and  trocar.  The  snakes,  which  I  will  distinguish  as  numbers  one, 
two,  and  three,  received  respectively  ten,  eight,  and  seven  drops  of  poison. 

No.  1  died  in  thirty-six  hours.  The  wound  was  surrounded  by  softened  tissues, 
but  was  not  stained  with  blood.  The  organs  generally  were  normal,  except  the 
stomach,  which  contained  bloody  mucus.     The  heart  was  full  of  clotted  blood. 

No.  2  died  in  sixty-seven  hours.  The  local  appearances  in  this  case  were  much 
as  in  the  last  one,  but  less  extensive.  The  interior  organs  were  healthy,  and  the 
heart  contained  two  loose  and  soft  clots. 

No.  3  died  during  the  seventh  day.  The  wound,  in  this  case,  penetrated  the 
muscles,  which  were  dark  and  much  softened.     The  blood  in  the  heart  was  mostly 


OP  THE  YENOM  OP  THE  EATTLESNAKE.  63 

diffluent,  presenting  but  a  single  small  coagulum  of  loose  structure.  The  intestines 
were  spotted  -with  ecchymoses,  and  the  peritoneal  cavity  contained  about  a  drachm 
of  fluid  blood. 

I  may  add  to  these  cases  the  numerous  instances  in  which  I  have  wounded  the 
mouths  of  snakes,  or  torn  the  vagina  dentis,  while  robbing  them  of  poison.  On 
none  of  these  occasions  has  any  serious  result  followed  the  injury,  even  where 
venom  had  fallen  upon  the  abraded  surfaces  in  considerable  amount. 

The  above  experiments  were  on  the  whole  so  definite  in  their  results,  that  I  did 
not  think  it  necessary  to  multiply  them.  I  had  very  many  times  injured  snakes 
far  more  than  these  were  injured  by  their  own  fangs,  or  the  preparatory  manipula- 
tions, and  I,  therefore,  felt  at  liberty  to  conclude  that  the  animals  employed  on  these 
latter  occasions  really  died  from  the  venom.  The  length  of  time  requii'ed  for  this 
to  occur  was  curious,  and  far  exceeded  in  most  of  them  that  which  was  noted  in 
Bernard's  case,  or  in  the  many  instances  of  which  I  have  been  told  where  rattle- 
snakes had  stricken  themselves. 

One  of  the  factors  in  the  experiment,  and  one  which  has  been  too  much  neg- 
lected, is  the  temperature,  which  in  my  own  cases  was  very  moderate  during  the 
day,  and  fell  a  good  deal  lower  at  night,  the  observations  having  been  carried  on 
during  a  cool  period  in  September,  1859.  M.  Bernard,  Russell,  and  Fontana,  give 
no  record  of  the  temperature  during  their  observations.  That  it  is  a  very  important 
condition  in  the  venom  poisoning  of  the  cold-blooded  batrachia  I  have  frequently 
observed,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  in  all  cold-blooded  animals  the  elevation 
of  temperature  carries  with  it  an  increase  of  danger  from  poisons,  and  especially 
from  those  of  a  septic  nature. 

When  we  examine  the  pathological  effects  of  the  venom  in  warm-blooded  ani- 
mals, we  shall  see  that,  while  the  general  phenomena  were  essentially  the  same 
as  in  cold-blooded  reptiles  and  batrachia,  they  were  far  more  rapidly  produced. 
The  Crotalus  itself  was  a  good  illustration  of  this  contrast,  and  was  in  other 
respects  exceptional  in  the  mode  in  which  it  was  affected,  since,  while  the  muscles 
were  altered,  as  in  warm-blooded  creatures,  the  blood  coagulated  better  than  was 
usual  in  them,  and  the  visceral  lesions  were  less  severe,  and  less  frequent.  On  the 
other  hand,  while  the  frog  was  for  its  size  remarkably  unimpressible  by  Crotalus 
venom,  the  phenomena  which  in  it  accompanied  the  examples  of  slow  poisoning, 
were  in  no  respect  different  from  those  developed  in  the  warm-blooded  animals. 
To  this  subject  we  shall  recur,  after  studying  the  effects  of  the  venom  upon  the 
higher  animals. 


64  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 


CHAPTER   VI. 

TOXICOLOGICAL  ACTION  OF  THE  VENOM  UPON  WAEM-BLOODED 

ANIMALS. 

We  shall  now  enter,  without  other  comment,  on  the  study  of  the  eiFects  of  Cro- 
talus  venom  upon  warm-blooded  animals. 

Of  all  warm-blooded  creatures,  birds  are  most  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  this 
poison.  So  sudden,  indeed,  were  its  effects  in  some  of  them,  that  when  the  dose  of  the 
venom  was  large,  there  was  hardly  time  to  observe  the  I'esultant  phenomena.  In 
larger  birds  this  extreme  sensibility  to  the  poison  alsoexisted.  when  the  dose  was  in 
proportion  greater.  So  minute,  however,  was  the  quantity  required  to  kill  a  small 
bird,  such  as  the  reed-bird,  that  under  certain  circumstances  these  little  ci'eatures 
became  very  delicate  tests  of  the  presence  or  relative  activity  of  the  venom.  , 

Experiment. — A  pigeon  was  lowered  into  the  snake-box,  and  was  struck  once,  high 
up  on  the  back,  by  a  snake  of  middle  size,  which  had  just  used  its  fangs.  Upon  this 
occasion,  both  fangs  were  buried  deeply.  On  being  released,  the  pigeon  walked 
across  the  table,  and  seeking  a  corner,  remained  at  rest,  until,  at  the  close  of  three 
minutes  it  fell  down,  and  immediately  began  to  breathe  convulsively,  now  and  then 
gaping,  and  making  efforts  to  rise.  The  difficulty  in  the  respiration  seemed  to  be 
due  to  the  general  weakness,  which  interfered  with  all  the  other  movements  at  the 
same  time.  The  bird  became  more  and  more  feeble,  the  breathing  more  labored, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  minute  the  head  fell  to  one  side,  the  breathing 
ceased,  and  the  bird  died  without  convulsions. 

P.  M.  Section. — Both  fang  marks  were  surrounded  by  circles  of  extravasated 
blood,  about  three  lines  in  breadth.  The  motor  nerves  of  the  wings  and  legs  were 
irritable  nine  minutes  after  death.  The  muscles  remained  irritable  during  twenty- 
nine  minutes,  when  post-mortem  rigor  appeared  in  the  legs,  and  soon  became  general. 
The  heart  beat  with  all  its  cavities,  four  minutes  after  respiration  ceased.  Both 
auricles  and  ventricles  were  sensitive  to  mechanical  stimulus  nine  minutes  after 
death.  Two  minutes  later,  the  ventricles  ceased  to  resf)ond,  but  the  auricles  were 
more  or  less  irritable  fifteen  minutes  after  death.  The  blood  coagulated  moderately 
well.     It  was  very  dark,  but  on  exposure  became  bright  red. 

Experiment. — Temperature  74°  F.  A  pigeon  secured  by  a  string  was  thrown  into 
a  snake-box.  Two  snakes  of  middle  size,  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  long,  struck 
at  it  as  soon  as  it  began  to  flutter.  The  pigeon  was  at  once  removed  and  put  on 
the  table,  where,  in  two  minutes  it  showed  signs  of  weakness,  staggered  to  and  fro, 
and  at  last,  as  usual,  sought  refuge  in  a  corner.  At  the  sixth  minute,  its  bi'eath- 
ing  became  labored  and  jerking,  and  the  muscles  about  the  wound  were  twitching 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  (55 

locally.  At  the  sixteenth  minute,  the  breathing  was  still  jerking,  but  more  rapid, 
the  bird  crouched  as  if  asleep,  the  eye  natural ;  the  pupil,  if  changed  at  all,  a  little 
contracted.  At  the  thirty-sixth  minute  the  head  fell,  the  eyes  closed,  respiration 
became  rare  and  labored,  and  the  pupils  contracted.  Cloac  temperature  104*°  F. 
At  the  fortieth  minute,  the  head  was  bent  suddenly  forward  on  the  breast,  and  after 
three  such  motions  of  a  convulsive  nature,  respiration  ceased  at  the  forty-second 
minute. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  head  was  cut  off  at  once,  and  the  blood  received  in  a  cap- 
sule. It  was  dark,  but  became  red  on  exposure,  and  coagulated  firmly,  at  the  close 
of  four  minutes.  Nervous  irritability  existed  feebly  in  the  sciatic  nerves,  nine 
minutes  after  death.  Elsewhere  it  continued  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  minute, 
when  a  probe  thrust  down  the  spine  occasioned  no  motion.  Ten  minutes  after 
death  the  muscles  were  everywhere  very  irritable.  Thirty-three  minutes  after  death 
this  property  was  present  only  in  the  thighs  and  the  diaphragm.  In  both  of  these 
localities  it  was  still  perceptible  fifty-six  minutes  after  death.  Ten  minutes  later, 
I  could  not  feel  sure  of  its  existence.  The  heart,  which  was  large  and  dark,  ceased 
to  beat  ten  minutes  after  respiration  stopped,  and  two  minutes  later  had  totally 
lost  all  irritability  to  stimulus.  The  auricles  contained  a  little  dark  blood,  chiefly 
uncoagulated,  with  the  exception  of  two  small  and  soft  clots. 

Experiment. — A  snake  four  feet  long  was  secured  and  made  to  bite  a  pigeon,  which 
it  seized  so  that  one  fang  entered  the  knee.  This  pigeon  had  recovered  from  a  former 
bite  with  the  loss  of  a  portion  of  the  pectoral  muscles.  It  was  well  and  active. 
Upon  its  being  bitten,  I  threw  it  from  me,  but,  to  my  surprise,  its  wings  were  mo- 
tionless, and  it  fell  a  dead  weight  on  the  table,  and  did  not  afterwards  breathe  or 
move.     Thirty  seconds  elapsed  between  the  bite  and  the  death. 

P.  M.  Section. — Some  little  delay  occurred,  owing  to  the  unexpected  nature  of 
the  death,  and  on  exposing  the  heart  within  three  or  four  minutes,  it  had  ceased  to 
beat,  although  it  responded  to  stimulus  feebly  and  locally  for  a  few  minutes  longer. 
The  nerves  in  the  thigh  were  irritable  during  twenty-eight  minutes.  The  muscles 
everywhere  lost  their  irritability  within  two  hours  and  ten  minutes. 

Cases  of  chronic  or  secondary  poisoning  were,  naturally,  rare  in  birds,  and  if 
they  survived  a  few  hours,  they  frequently  recovered.  The  following  cases  illus- 
trate suflBciently  well  the  chronic  form  of  poisoning. 

Experiment. — Temperature  77°  F.  A  large  white  pigeon  was  thrown  into  the 
snake-box,  the  inmates  of  which  seemed,  for  a  time,  reluctant  to  use  their  power. 
Finally  a  snake  two  feet  in  length  bit  the  pigeon  once  in  the  breast,  and  became 
so  entangled,  that  bird  and  serpent  rolled  over  together.  On  examining  the  wound, 
two  fang  marks  were  found  in  the  pectoral  region,  but  so  much  of  the  venom  had 
been  cast  upon  the  neighboring  feathers,  that  I  presumed  the  wound  could  not  be 
rapidly  mortal.  Three  hours  after  its  infliction,  the  bird  drooped  a  little  and  was 
disposed  to  sleep.  A  few  hours  later  this  tendency  had  passed  awaj',  but  the 
Avound  was  dark  and  swollen  from  effused  blood.  No  signs  of  active  inflammation 
existed.  On  pressure,  a  little  serous  blood  flowed  from  the  wound.  Within  five 
days  the  skin  gave  way  and  the  parts  beneath  sloughed  to  the  bones.  At  the  close 
9 


66  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

of  this  process  on  the  sixth  day,  the  bird  died,  probably  of  mere  exhaustion  and 
constitutional  irritation. 

Experiment. — Two  pigeons  were  bitten  by  a  snake  which  had  made  frequent  and 
recent  use  of  its  fangs.  Both  birds  were  purposely  exposed  in  such  a  way  that  they 
were  bitten  in  the  thigh.  Both  were  enfeebled  by  the  poison  and  seemed  disposed  to 
sleep.  One  of  them  sunk  slowly,  lower  and  lower,  until  its  head  touched  the 
table,  when  it  rolled  on  its  side.  It  died  without  convulsions  nearly  eleven  hours 
after  the  bite.  The  second  pigeon,  which  was  also  the  last  bitten,  died  in  violent 
convulsions  with  the  head  thrown  backwards,  during  the  eighth  hour. 

P.  M.  Section.~hi  neither  of  these  birds  was  the  blood  coagulated,  nor  did  it 
pass  into  that  state  upon  exposure.  In  the  pigeon  first  struck  the  pericardium  was 
very  full  of  serous  blood,  but  no  other  organ  was  altered.  In  the  second  pigeon, 
the  lungs,  air  passages,  and  mouth  were  full  of  blood,  the  mucous  walls  of  the 
stomach  were  deeply  congested  in  spots,  and  the  peritoneal  surface  of  the  small 
intestines  was  marked  with  star-like  points  of  extravasated  blood. 

Experiment. — A  pigeon  was  struck  in  the  back  by  a  small  snake,  only  one  fang 
entering.  The  bird  was  placed  on  the  table,  where  it  instantly  sought  a  corner  and 
in  ten  minutes  fell  into  the  usual  stupor  with  jerking,  abrupt  respiration.  This 
condition  seemed  to  lessen  an  hour  later,  but  only  for  a  time,  and  the  bird  finally 
sinking  down,  became  weaker  and  weaker,  and  died  without  convulsions  at  the 
close  of  five  hours  and  a  half.  The  pupils  gradually  contracted  before  death,  and 
suddenly  dilated  afterwards. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  wound  in  the  back  was  dark,  and  a  little  thin  dark  blood 
oozed  from  it.  The  tissues  around  it  for  an  inch  or  more,  were  soaked  with  ex- 
travasated blood,  which  had  even  passed  through  between  the  ribs,  so  as  to  stain 
the  tissues  behind  the  intestines  and  crop.  The  heart  was  large  and  full  of  per- 
fectly fluid  blood.  No  other  lesions  were  observed,  except  that  the  pericordial 
serum  was  a  little  bloody. 

My  chief  reason  for  recording  at  length  the  cases  above  reported,  is  to  show 
the  great  increase  in  the  internal  lesions  which  occurs  when  the  venom  is  long  in 
killing  the  animal.  Among  these  changes,  it  was  found,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the 
blood  was  most  affected,  and  least  coagulable,  the  longer  the  death  was  delayed. 

I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  report  in  full  the  whole  of  the  numerous  cases 
of  the  malady  in  the  pigeon.  In  some  instances,  the  birds  recovered  from  the 
immediate  effect  of  the  jjoison  to  die  of  the  secondary  lesions  induced  by  it.  In 
others,  the  death  was  sudden  and  early,  and  in  a  third  class  it  was  delayed  for  a 
few  hours.  All  of  these  find  illustration  in  the  cases  already  quoted.  One  point, 
however,  appeared  to  me  to  demand  further  attention. 

When  a  number  of  any  class  of  animals  are  poisoned,  certain  phenomena  and 
lesions  occur  constantly,  others  exceptionally ;  and  this  is  true  of  what  are  usually 
known  as  diseases,  as  well  as  of  more  easily  studied  cases  of  poisoning.  To  illus- 
trate this,  I  have  selected  seven  cases  of  a  fatal  character  in  pigeons,  none  of  which 
have  been  reported  in  the  foregoing  pages.  To  save  space,  I  have  presented  them 
in  tabular  form,  so  as  to  show,  at  a  glance,  the  variety  of  symptoms  and  patho- 


OF  THE  VEXOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE. 


67 


logical  appearances  which  may  occur.     No  cases  of  very  early  death  are  admitted 
into  this  report. 


1 

1    TABLE  OF  SYMPTOMS  AND  LESIONS  IN  SEVEN  CASES  OF  PIGEONS  POISONED  BY  CROTALUS  VENOM. 

No. 

No.  of 

( 
Locality 

Duration  of 

Occurrence  of 

Internal  lesions.                                 State  of  blood.                  , 

fang 

bitten. 

life  from  time 

convulsions. 

marks. 

of  bite. 

, 

1 

1 

Thigh. 

2  hours. 

None. 

None.                                             j  Loosely  coagulated.                    j 

a 

2 

Breast. 

4  hours  and 

None. 

Spots  of  extravasation  under  j  Chieiiy    uncoagulated,     one  | 

10  minutes. 

the  peritoneal  surface  of  the 
intestines  and  on  the.heart. 

small  heart  clot  of  loose 
texture. 

8 

2 

Back  and 

2  hours  and 

Violent. 

None. 

Coagulated  well. 

1 

Breast. 

17  minutes. 

4 

2 

Breast. 

5  hours. 

Slight  spasms 
at  death. 

None. 

Coagulated  loosely   after  a 
few  minutes. 

5 

' 

Thigh. 

9  hours  and 

10  minutes. 

None. 

Bloody  serum  in  pericardium, 
bloody  mucus  in  lung. 

Blood  diffluent. 

ti 

2 

Back. 

3  hours. 

Sliglit   at 
death. 

Ecchymosed    spots    on    the 
heart,     abundant     yellow 
serum  in  pericardium. 

Blood  diffluent ;   one   small, 
soft  clot  in  right  auricle. 

1 

1 

Leg. 

6  hours  and 
30  minutes. 

None. 

No  visible  lesions. 

Blood  perfectly  fluid. 

i 

The  remaining  observations  were  made  upon  reed-birds,  and  were  principally 
incidental  to  researches  upon  special  points  to  which  I  shall  have  to  refer  so  much 
at  length  in  another  place,  that  it  is  needless  to  duplicate  them  here.  The  reed- 
bird  proved  so  susceptible  a  test,  that  one-eighth  of  a  drop  of  venom  suflSced  in 
most  cases  to  destroy  it,  the  length  of  life  in  these  instances  being  always  in  inverse 
ratio  to  the  amount  of  poison  employed. 

Among  warm  blooded  quadrupeds,  I  have  examined  the  influence  of  venom  on 
the  rabbit,  the  guinea  pig,  and  the  dog.  On  the  first  mentioned  animal  I  have 
made  ten  observations.  Of  these,  I  shall  report  two  at  length,  the  remainder  in 
full  tabular  form.  Upon  the  guinea  pig  I  have  made  only  four  experiments,  all  of 
them  incidental  to  special  points  of  research,  and  not  so  fully  reported  in  my  note 
book  as  to  enable  me  to  detail  at  length  their  symptoms  and  lesions. 

Experiment.  Poisoning  of  Rabbits. — A  large  white  rabbit  was  lowered  into  the 
snake-box,  and  was  instantly  struck  by  a  small  snake.  The  wound  took  effect  on 
the  left  hind  paw.  The  rabbit  was  removed  and  put  upon  the  table,  when  it  rolled 
over,  gasping  and  slightly  convulsed,  and  was  dead  in  one  minute. 

P.  M. — No  lesion  was  found  in  any  organ.  The  fore  feet  twitched  for  some 
few  minutes  after  death,  and  the  skin  muscles  moved  to  and  fro  in  a  singular 
manner.  The  heart  was  beating  actively,  but  feebly,  just  after  death,  and  con- 
tinued locally  irritable  for  over  an  hour  and  a  half.  The  muscles  and  motor  nerves 
were  perfectly  excitable  several  minutes  after  death.  The  blood  coagulated  firmly 
and  rapidly ;  a  perfect  case  of  acute  poisoning. 

Experiment. — In  this  instance  the  animal  was  struck  once  in  the  back  by  a  large 
snake  already  exhausted  by  frequent  use.  A  few  minutes  after  the  bite  took  place 
the  rabbit  was  seized  with  weakness,  gritting  of  the  teeth,  and  rapid  respiration. 
It  passed  urine  and  feces,  and  remained  feeble  during  some  hours.  From  this 
period  the  weakness  abated  somewhat,  but  the  back  continued  to  swell.  On  the 
second  day  the  local  signs  were  impi-oving,  but  the  animal  had  passed  a  very  albu- 


68 


phtsioloctT  axd  toxicology 


minous  urine,  and  a  large  amount  of  blood  mixed  with  feces.  The  symptoms  of 
general  weakness  now  increased,  the  hind  legs  began  to  drag,  the  motions  were 
uncertain,  and  the  bloody  purging  grew  worse.  The  rabbit  died  on  the  third  day, 
during  my  absence. 

P.  21.  Section. — Eigor  well  developed.  The  period  of  death  being  uncertain,  the 
irritability  of  the  tissues  was  not  tested.  The  wound  was  surrounded  by  half  an 
ounce  or  more  of  dark  fluid  blood.  The  vessels  in  the  neighborhood  were  full  of  a 
similar  fluid,  but  there  was  no  vascular  redness,  like  that  of  acute  inflammation. 
The  muscles  in  the  track  of  the  bite,  which  was  a  double  fang  mark,  were  remark- 
ably softened  and  could  be  torn  with  the  utmost  ease.  The  brain  was  highly  con- 
gested, and  there  was  a  good  deal  of  bloody  serum  in  the  cavities  of  that  organ. 
Similar  congestion  existed  in  the  spinal  canal,  and  at  several  points  the  white 
nervous  tissue  was  stained  with  small  patches  of  blood.  The  lungs  were  healthy. 
The  pericardium  was  curiously  distended  with  bloody  serum.  The  heart  was  con- 
tracted and  contained  but  little  blood,  and  that  dark  and  diffluent.  The  intestines 
were  spotted  at  intervals  with  ecchymoses  four  to  five  lines  in  diameter  and  appa- 
rently just  beneath  the  serous  covering,  the  cavity  of  which  contained  a  little 
bloody  serum.  The  intestines  from  the  oesophagus  to  the  rectum  were  dotted  with 
ecchymoses  and  filled,  especially  the  large  gut,  with  blood  and  mucus.  The  right 
kidney  was  lai'ge  and  absolutely  soaked  with  dark  fluid  blood.  The  left  kidney 
was  more  healthy.  The  bladder  and  ureters  contained  a  good  deal  of  bloody  urine. 
How  the  rabbit  lived  so  long  with  such  a  singular  complication  of  serious  lesions  it 
is  diflicult  to  conceive.  In  most  cases  of  chronic  poisoning,  some  one  or  two  organs 
may  become  the  seat  of  local  extravasations,  but  for  extent  and  character  of  lesion 
this  case  stands  alone  in  my  experience. 

■  j 

I  TABLE  OF  STilPTOMS  IX  EIGHT  RABBITS. 


Duration  of  life    Early  local  symptoms 
after  bite.  and  place  of  wound. 


General  symptoms. 


Mode  of  death. 


Slight  swelling  in 
fore  shonlder. 

Hind  right  leg 
swelled  enormotis- 
\y  up  to  the  spine. 


1  honr  and  10  '  Jfeck:  slight  sweU- 


5  hotu^  and  4 
minutes. 


minntes. 
27  minntes. 


43  minntes. 
9  horns. 


2  honis  and  9 

minutes. 


ingjlocal  twitches. 
Necfc;  slight  sweU- 

ing,  local  twitches . 
Right  hind  leg. 

Left  fore  paw. 


JS^ecb    and    head ; 
local  twitching. 


Left  fore  leg. 


Prostration  and  loss  of  power  without  loss    Gradual,  without  conTul- 
of  sensation  or  cerebration,  jerking  respi-  j     sions. 
ration,  general  twitching. 

Prostration,  gritting  the  teeth,  local  and  j  Gradual,  with  slight  ge- 
general  twitching,  jerking  respiration,  neral  convulsion;  head 
gradual  loss  of  power,  with  continued  thrown  forwards,  feet 
ability  to  hear,  see,  &c.,  untU  near  death.  !     extended. 


r  I 


Sudden  loss  of  motor  power,  gaping,  pros- 
tration, very  quick  respiration. 
Sudden  prostration. 

Loss  of  motor  power,  prostration,  jerking, 
respiration,  general  twitching. 

Prostration,  gradual  loss  of  motion,  gritting 
the  teeth,  jerking  respiration  not  so  weU 
marked  as  usual,  singular  and  incessant 
morement  in  the  skin  muscles. 

Sudden  prostration  and  loss  of  motion, 
respiration  quick  and  labored,  not  jerk- 
ing. 

Symptoms  of  weakness  suddenly  deve- 
loped, 15  minntes  after  bite :  respiration 
jerking.^ 


Gradual,  no  conTuIsions. 
Violent  convTilsions. 


Violent  convulsions. 


So  convulsions ;  gradual 
and  easy  death. 


Gradual,  with  slight  con- 
vulsive motions  of  the 
limbs  and  skin  muscles. 

Gradual  and  easy ;  no 
convulsions. 


•  In  all  of  the  above  cases  the  heart  pulse  became  rapid  and  feeble. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE. 


69 


TABLE  OF 

LESIONS  IN  THE  EIGHT  BABBITS  MENTIONED  ABOVE. 

1 

No. 

Local  appearances. 

Heart  and  lungs.          1  Abdominal  viscera. 

Nervous  system. 

Blood.               1 

1 

Small    area    of    extrava- 

Heart dark,  relaxed,  and    Healthy. 

Slight  fulness  in 

Coagulated  pret- 

sated blood. 

full  of  blood,  on  right 
side  especially. 

the   vessels    of 
the  brain. 

ty  well. 

2 

Extensive      effasion      of 

Heart  contained  a  good    The  caecum  con- 

The   usual   vas- 

One small  clot  in 

blood,  partly  clotted,  and 

deal  of  blood  on  both 

tained   a   good 

cular     fulness 

left     ventricle, 

reaching  up  the  leg  to 

sides ;  a  little  bloody 

deal    of    dark 

only. 

and    elsewhere 

the  flank  and  down  to 

serum  in  the  pericar- 

blood in  patch- 

the blood  was 

the  foot,  and  soaking  the 

dium. 

es. 

fluid. 

muscles  to  the  bone. 

3 

Slight      extravasiou      of 

Heart  full  on  both  sides. 

Intestines  dotted 

None. 

Blood    uncoagu- 

blood. 

with  small  spots 
of  extravasated 
blood. 

lated. 

4     Slight  extravasation. 

Heart  full  on  both  sides. 

"None. 

None. 

Coagulated  well. 

5   i  Slight    and  thin  layer  of 

Heart  as  usual,  no  le- 

None. 

A   little   bloody 

Loosely  coagula- 

extravasated blood. 

sion. 

serum    in    the 
ventricles       of 
the  brain. 

ted. 

6  I  Part  enormously  swollen 

Bloody    serum    in    pe- 

None. 

Great     vascular 

Blood     uncoagu- 

1     with    blood,    partly    in 

ricardium    and    both 

fulness. 

lated. 

loose  clots  when  let  out 

pleurae;  two  extensive 

by  incision  at  the  third 

extravasations  in  the 

hour. 

right  lung ;  a  rare  oc- 
currence. 

7     Scarcely  a  trace   of  any 

No  lesion;  right  side  of 

None. 

None. 

Blood    perfectly 

!     lesion  except  the  fang 

heart  much  distended 

coagulated. 

'     wound. 

with  blood. 

8     Extravasated    blood    be- 

No  lesion  ;  heart  large 

A  few  small  spots 

None. 

Uncoagulated. 

tween  skin  and  muscles 

and  full  of  blood  in  aU 

of  blood  under 

up  to  the  thigh. 

of  its  cavities. 

the  peritoneum 
of  the  small  in- 
testines. 

Effect  of  Crotalus  Venom  on  Dogs. — Thus  far  we  have  dealt  with  animals  who 
were  almost  inevitably  destroyed  by  the  bite  of  the  Crotalus.  The  canine  species 
are  far  less  liable  to  die,  because  their  larger  size  is  in  itself  a  protection,  as  must 
be  evident,  when  we  consider  that  the  poison  is  active  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
injected,  and  that  this  will  be  the  same,  whether  the  animal  bitten  be  a  bird  or  a 
horse.  In  the  following  cases,  therefore,  some  will  be  found  to  have  resulted  favor- 
ably. On  the  other  hand,  the  most  rapidly  fatal  termination  was  consequent  upon 
a  number  of  bites,  and  took  place  at  the  close  of  twenty  minutes.  On  this  point 
I  have  a  brief  explanation  to  make,  before  going  further. 

At  the  time  of  my  experiments  upon  dogs,  my  snakes  had  been  often  used  and 
handled,  and  had  taken  but  little  food,  although  in  confinement  from  two  to  five 
weeks.  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that,  under  these  circumstances,  they  should 
prove  as  deadly  as  if  they  had  been  fresh,  and  were  biting  for  the  first  time  during 
some  weeks  or  months.  I  have  thought  proper  to  make  this  prefatory  statement, 
because  it  is  well  known  that  very  often  dogs  have  been  destroyed  in  one,  two,  or 
three  minutes  after  the  bite  of  a  fresh  animal. 

The  following  experiments  were  selected  from  a  series,  made  with  the  view  of 
establishing  a  rate  of  mortality,  so  as  to  compare  the  results  with  those  obtained 
when  a  supposed  antidote  was  employed.  They  were  made  with  care,  the  snakes 
employed  having  been  previously  left  undisturbed  during  a  week. 

With  the  defects  which  underlie  this  plan,  so  far  as  it  has  reference  to  antidotes, 


70  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

we  have  here  nothing  to  do,  and  the  cases  are  quoted  Only  on  account  of  their 
value  as  such. 

E'xperiment. — A  large  Spaniel,  weighing  sixteen  and  a  half  pounds,  was  muzzled, 
and  lowered  into  the  box  containing  one  large  snake,  which  struck  it  fiercely  in  the 
right  fore-shoulder,  and  again,  an  instant  afterwards,  a  little  higher  up.  Upon  a 
careful  removal  of  the  haii',  only  one  fang  seemed  to  have  acted  in  either  wound. 
The  blows  appeared  to  be  excessively  painful  at  the  time,  but  upon  removing  the 
dog  at  once,  he  gave  no  after  signs  of  pain  or  distress.  Within  twenty-five  minutes 
he  was  languid,  and  remained  standing  with  his  head  down,  -as  though  sick  and 
confused.  The  local  twitching  about  the  wounds  was  highly  marked,  but  there 
was  no  general  fremitus,  and  the  respiration  was  only  quickened  a  little,  without 
being  either  jerking  or  laborious.  Daring  the  ensuing  twenty-four  hours,  the  dog 
refused  to  eat,  but  drank  at  frequent  intervals,  and  passed  urine  and  clay-colored 
stools.  ■    He  was  able  to  move  about,  but  preferred  to  remain  at  rest. 

The  wound  was  not  swollen,  but  when  examined  with  care,  a  slight  hardening 
of  the  neighboring  tissues  could  be  felt,  extending  two  inches  around  the  wound. 

On  pressui-e,  a  little  bloody  serum  could  be  forced  out  of  the  fang  track.  This 
continued  to  be  the  case  during  three  days,  when  pus  also  flowed  out.  The  local 
evil  was  very  limited,  however,  and  the  animal  was  so  well  on  the  ninth  day,  that 
it  Avas  used  for  another  purpose. 

Experiment. — The  dog  employed  in  the  last  observation  was  pei'fectly  well,  and 
eating  and  drinking  as  usual,  when  he  was  bitten  in  the  left  fore-shoulder,  and  in  the 
left  hind  leg  below  the  knee.  Both  wounds  swelled,  that  in  the  shoulder  most.  The 
local  fremitus  was  very  remarkable,  and  extended  up  and  down  the  hind  leg,  and 
for  some  distance  around  the  anterior  wound.  Although  the  dog  whined  at  inter- 
vals for  some  hours,  and,  to  appearance,  suffered  considerably,  the  parts  bitten  soon 
ceased  to  swell,  and  but  little  oozing  took  place  from  either  wound.  No  suppura- 
tion occurred,  and  the  dog  was  entirely  well  within  two  days. 

Experiment. — A  black  and  white  mongrel  setter,  weighing  thirty  pounds,  was  low- 
ered into  the  cage.  The  only  snake  in  the  box  struck  him  repeatedly,  but  without 
seeming  to  cause  much  pain.  Upon  looking  for  the  wounds  none  could  be  detected, 
and  the  snake  was,  therefore,  caught  in  the  loop  as  usual,  and  held  to  the  dog  again, 
until  it  bit  eagerly.  Still  no  wound  beyond  slight  abrasions  could  be  found,  and  on 
the  bitten  skin  lay  adherent  a  large  fang.  On  inspecting  the  snake's  mouth,  I 
found  that  both  ftings  were  recent,  and  not  yet  anchylosed  in  their  maxillary  sock- 
ets. The  snake's  skin  was  loose,  and  was  shed  entire  two  days  later.  Two  other 
snakes  were  next  caught  and  made  to  bite  the  hind  leg  and  fore-shoulder  of  the 
dog.  The  latter  wound  gave  great  pain,  and  the  swelling  extended  to  the  neck 
and  chest.  The  local  trembling  was  slight.  There  were  no  marked  general  symp- 
toms, except  a  slight  ineffectual  effort  to  vomit,  half  an  hour  after  being  bitten,  and 
some  evidence  of  general  feebleness  which  passed  off  in  five  hours.  Next  day  the 
dog  was  well  and  active,  eating  and  drinking  as  usual.  He  remained  thus  for  ten 
daj's,  during  which  time  the  wounds  grew  smaller,  and  from  that  in  the  shoulder 
oozed  a  little  red  serum,  and  finally  some  pus,  but  neither  in  this  or  in  other  cases 


OF  THE  YENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  71 

did  the  skin  slough  extensively.  I  found  in  most  instances  only  a  small  orifice 
leading  into  an  abscess  cavity,  which  was  rarely  above  the  size  of  a  large  walnut. 

Experiment. — A  white  mongrel,  weighing  seventeen  pounds,  was  placed  in  the  cage 
with  a  large  snake.  He  was  struck  at  once  in  the  left  hind  thigh,  and  again  by 
the  same  serpent  about  three  inches  above  the  first  wound.  The  dog  suffered  ter- 
ribly, and  during  two  hours  whined  and  yelled  incessantly.  Enormous  swell- 
ing occurred,  involving  the  whole  limb  up  to  the  pelvic  joint.  Two  hours  after 
being  struck  the  dog  was  weak,  but  still  kept  his  feet,  and  drank  almost  without 
ceasing.  His  respiration  was  occasionally  jerking,  his  heart  as  usual  rapid  but 
feeble.  No  local  or  general  fremitus  was  noted.  At  the  third  hour  he  was  again 
howling  frightfully.  The  weakness  was  greater  than  before,  and  he  staggered  in 
his  gait,  but  the  other  symptoms  were  unchanged.  Four  and  a  half  hours  after 
the  poisoning,  the  dog  became  still  weaker,  ceased  to  drink,  and  finally  lay  down. 
The  parts  wounded  were  still  enlarging.  At  this  time  he  vomited  a  little  faod  and 
mucus,  and  soon  after  purged  and  urinated.  From  this  time  he  began  to  mend,  and 
although  he  howled  all  the  following  night,  he  was  able  to  run  about  the  next  day, 
with  only  a  slight  appearance  of  lameness.  The  wound  discharged  blood,  and  at 
length  bloody  pus,  and  finally  pure  pus,  up  to  the  period  of  recovery,  three  weeks 
later.  During  the  first  week  of  this  time,  the  dog  took  scarcely  any  food,  and  was 
subject  to  profuse  dysenteric  discharges,  so  that  he  became  remarkably  emaciated. 
From  this  condition  he  gradually  improved,  all  the  symptoms  abated,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  third  week  he  was  as  fat  as  when  first  injured. 

The  cases  here  related  are  selected  from  a  lai'ger  number  of  a  similar  nature,  all 
illustrating  the  more  or  less  grave  character  of  the  symptoms,  and  also  the  possi- 
bility of  recovery,  even  under  apparently  unfavorable  circumstances.  The  next 
case,  and  the  last  of  this  kind,  I  have  placed  alone,  because  it  has  especial  value, 
as  showing  how  exceedingly  grave  may  be  the  signs  of  poisoning,  and  yet  how 
rapid  and  complete  may  be  the  rally  and  escape. 

Experiment. — A  small  brown  terrier  was  struck  twice  on  the  fore  leg  and  shoulder 
by  a  large  snake,  which  I  held  in  the  loop,  as  usual.  Within  ten  minutes  the 
dog  vomited,  urinated,  and  passed  solid  feces.  All  this  time  he  whined  a  good 
deal,  and  finally,  at  the  fifteenth  minute,  lay  down  on  his  side,  breathing  in  jerks, 
and  twitching  in  almost  every  muscle.  No  fremitus  could  be  seen  at  the  wound, 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  swelling,  which  was  great,  and  might  readily  have  concealed 
'  it  from  view.  An  hour  after  being  bitten,  the  dog  had  a  slight  convulsion,  and 
vomited  again.  Meanwhile  I  could  scarcely  feel  the  heart  beat,  and  the  respirations 
were  long  and  labored.  On  leaving  this  animal,  late  in  the  evening,  and  about 
seven  hours  after  he  was  hurt,  he  was  lying  on  the  floor,  scarcely  breathing,  and 
nearly  pulseless.  He  had  passed  liquid  and  very  dark  stools,  and  some  water.  Even 
at  this  period,  his  sensorium  seemed  unaffected,  and  he  felt  injuries,  heard  well,  and 
followed  with  his  eyes  the  movements  about  him.  To  my  surprise,  when  I  entered 
my  laboratory  the  next  morning,  the  dog  ran  by  me  and  attempted  to  escape ;  I 
caught  him  with  no  little  difficulty.  His  wound  was  like  a  hump  on  his  side  and 
back,  and  discharged  fluid  blood  in  occasional  drops.    The  floor  of  the  box  in  which 


72  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

I  had  left  him  contained  a  good  deal  of  dark,  semi-fluid  excrement  streaked  with 
blood,  and  he  had  drunk  nearly  the  third  of  a  bucket  of  water  during  the  night. 

The  remaining  instances  of  Crotalus  bite  in  dogs  were  all  flxtal,  and  were  selected, 
like  the  last  series,  as  being  the  most  illustrative  records  in  my  possession.  It  will 
be  observed,  as  I  have  already  stated,  that  no  deaths  took  place  so  early  as  to  give 
us  perfect  specimens  of  acute  poisoning  with  absence  of  visceral  lesions,  and  with 
a  perfectly  red  and  coagulable  blood.  That  such  cases  may  occur  in  the  dog,  under 
more  'favorable  experimental  conditions,  I  cannot  doubt  from  what  I  have  already 
seen  in  other  animals. 

Experiment. — A  dog  of  mongrel  bull-terrier  breed,  weighing  thirty-one  pounds, 
was  lowered  into  the  cage,  where  he  was  struck  on  the  outside  of  the  right  hind  leg 
in  the  thigh.  He  drew  up  the  leg  when  released,  and  whined  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  wound,  which  was  double,  bled  a  drop  or  two,  and  the  muscles  about  it 
twitched  considerably  at  intervals  for  an  hour,  when  this  symptom  was  obscured 
by  the  swelling.  His  pulse,  which  was  naturally  about  145  aiad  irregular,  was,  at 
the  fifth  minute,  140  and  regular,  respiration  35.  At  the  fifteenth  minute  he  lay 
down,  much  weakened,  pulse  160  and  feeble,  respiration  40.  At  the  twentieth 
minute  the  bowels  moved  loosely,  with  a  gray  discharge,  and  there  seemed  to  be 
some  tenesmus  in  the  rectum.  Twenty-fifth  minute,  pupils  so  far  natural  and 
mobile ;  he  could  stand  when  urged,  but  lay  down  again  at  once,  and  was  much 
weaker.  Forty-fifth  minute,  pulse  160,  respiration  45  and  laborious.  Fifty-fifth 
minute,  loss  of  power  in  the  hind  legs.  Eightieth  minute,  respiration  quick  and 
labored,  and  so  irregular  as  to  make  it  impossible  longer  to  count  the  heart  pulses. 
The  eyes  were  natural,  and  followed  my  motions ;  and  he  wagged  his  tail  when 
fondled.  At  this  time  the  observation  was  temporarily  interrupted,  and,  on  its 
resumption  at  the  third  hour,  the  dog  was  found  dead.  He  had  no  foam  about  his 
mouth,  and  probably  died  quietly. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  whole  muscular  and  areolar  tissue  of  the  leg  and  thigh,  half 
way  up  and  down  the  limb,  was  dark  with  infiltrated  blood.  About  the  wound 
the  swelling  was  due  to  a  mass  of  blood  partially  coagulated.  The  extravasated 
blood  extended  through  the  limb,  and  on  the  inside  it  passed  half  way  up  the 
sartorius  and  adductors,  and  along  the  sheath  of  the  vessels  to  within  two  inches 
of  the  femoral  ring.  Nearly  an  inch  of  the  sheath  was  clear  of  it,  but  one-half 
inch  below  the  ring  the  tissues  were  shaded  with  blood,  and  the  same  appearance 
was  seen  around  the  ring  itself.  From  this  point  the  extravasation  extended 
under. the  pei'itoneum,  into  the  pelvis,  and  on  to  the  inner  face  of  the  ilium.  The 
color  of  the  tissues  thus  stained  was  a  brilliant  scarlet.  The  abdominal  viscera  were 
healthy,  except  that  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  lower  bowels  was  somewhat 
congested.  The  lungs  were  sound.  The  heart  was  relaxed,  the  right  side  full, 
the  left  nearly  empty.  The  blood  on  the  right  side  was  a  little  darker  than  that 
on  the  left;  on  both  sides  and  everywhere  else  it  was  perfectly  fluid  and  free  from 
clots.  Placed  in  a  vial,  it  remained  fluid  until  decomposition  ensued.  Two  hours 
at  least  after  death,  some  of  the  blood  globules  found  in*  the.  heart  were  slightly 
indented;  those  taken  from  the  small  vessels  of  the  ear  were  perfectly  normal.    At 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  73 

the  period  of  examination,  the  muscular  and  nervous  irritability  had  entirely  de- 
parted. 

Experiment. — A  young  dog,  weighing  nine  and  a  half  pounds,  of  terrier  breed,  was 
lowered  into  a  box  containing  a  fresh  snake.  The  snake  struck  at  him  twice 
without  effect,  once  striking  to  one  side  of  the  part  aimed  at,  and  the  second  time 
miscalculating  its  distance.  The  third  blow  took  effect,  but  I  could  not  ascertain 
the  exact  locality  wounded.  The  dog  cried  out,  as  though  in  great  pain.  Within 
five  minutes  he  was  trembling  in  every  muscle.  At  the  twentieth  minute  he  was 
so  much  better  that  I  subjected  him  to  a  second  bite,  which  took  effect  on  the 
neck  in  front,  above  the  left  shoulder.  The  dog  at  once  lay  down,  then  rose,  and 
passed  water  and  solid  feces,  and,  at  the  fifth  minute  from  the  second  bite,  fell  on 
his  side,  and  vomited  freely.  The  vomiting  was  instantly  followed  by  general  con- 
vulsions, in  which  the  limbs  were  extended  and  the  head  thrown  back.  Mean- 
while, the  heart  was  very  feeble,  the  breathing  laborious,  and  the  pupil  contracted. 
The  character  of  the  respirations  at  this  time  was  singular.  Eight  or  ten  rapid 
respirations  took  place,  and  then  none  occurred  until  twenty  seconds  had  elapsed. 
The 'heart-beat,  previously  180  to  the  minute,  fell,  at  the  fifteenth  minute  after  the 
second  wound,  to  80,  and  became  remarkably  feeble.  At  the  seventeenth  minute 
the  respiration  stopped,  and  the  heart  pulse,  though  so  weak  as  to  be  counted  with 
difficulty,  rose  to  156,  falling  again,  at  the  twenty-fourth  minute,  to  58,  when  it 
became  indistinct  through  weakness.     The  pupils  rapidly  dilated. 

P.  M.  Section  was  delayed  twenty-four  hours.  Post-mortem  rigor  came  on  first 
about  the  fore  legs  and  neck,  and  was  complete  four  hours  after  death.  It  was  so 
strong  as  to  snap  a  small  cord  with  which  I  had  drawn  the  legs  of  the  dog  apart. 
The  wound  was  the  seat  of  an  extravasation  which  had  passed  over  the  shoulder 
and  on  to  the  neck.  The  vessels  near  it  were  filled  with  dark  and  difiluent  blood. 
The  muscles  near  the  wound  were  softened  and  readily  torn.  The  heart  contained 
an  abundance  of  blood  chiefly  fluid,  with  a  number  of  small  clots  of  very  loose 
structure,  in  the  right  side  and  somewhat  less  in  the  left  cavities.  In  the  pericar- 
dium there  was  about  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  bloody  serum.  The  abdominal  organs 
were  healthy,  and  the  peritoneum  contained  only  a  little  straw-colored  serum. 
The  bladder  was  partially  contracted,  and  held  an  ounce  or  two  of  slightly  albu- 
minous urine. 

The  bra.in  was  normally  firm,  though  somewhat  congested,  and  its  vessels  were 
distended  with  fluid  blood  and  a  few  bubbles  of  gas.  At  the  side  of  the  long  sinus 
a  little  blood  seemed  to  have  soaked  through  all  the  membranes  to  the  bone,  but 
there  was  no  large  quantity  of  blood  present  at  this  spot,  and  no  coagulum.  It 
looked  like  a  post-mortem  stain. 

Experiment. — A  white  dog,  weight  nineteen  and  a  half  pounds,  of  unknown  or 
mixed  breed,  was  exposed  for  a  special  purpose,  to  be  bitten  by  several  snakes,  all  of 
whom  had  used  their  fangs  or  been  robbed  of  venom  within  four  days.  The  dog  was 
hit  at  least  six  times,  and  perhaps  received  some  wounds  which  escaped  notice. 
.Those  found  on  removing  the  skin  were  in  the  neck  and  face,  fore-shoulders  and 
hind  legs.  There  were  absolutely  no  marked  symptoms  in  this  case,  except  increas- 
ing weakness,  and  consequent  vomiting.  The  bowels  also  were  moved  and  water 
10 


74  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

was  passed.  The  breathing  then  became  jerking  and  labored.  The  fremitus,  at 
first  locahzed  in  some  of  the  bites,  soon  became  general,  until  it  disappeared  before 
the  profound  debility,  which  seemed  to  affect  the  entire  economy.  Three  hours 
after  the  poisoning  the  animal  died  without  convulsions.  At  the  moment  of  the 
infliction  of  the  wounds,  there  certainly  was  great  pain,  but  at  no  time  afterwards 
was  this  sensation  expressed.  Until  near  death,  the  cerebral  functions  appeared  to 
preserve  their  integrity,  so  that  the  dog  wagged  his  tail  on  being  patted,  and  even 
followed  with  his  head  the  motions  of  the  flies  which  hovered  over  him.  The 
numerous  bites  were  really  the  most  formidable  lesions  found  after  death.  Around 
them,  in  each  case,  was  an  irregular  circle  of  extravasated  fluid  blood.  None  of 
them,  however,  were  much  swollen,  although  the  amount  of  blood  spread  out  in 
their  layers  and  soaked  into  the  muscles  must  have  been  considerable.  Except 
some  congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  there  was  no  morbid 
appearance  in  any  viscus.  The  right  heart  was  full  of  fluid  blood.  The  left  heart 
also  contained  more  blood  than  usual,  and  its  color  was  a  little  brighter  than  that 
of  the  other  side. 

Experiment. — A  white  mongrel  bitch,  weighing  fifteen  pounds,  was  put  in  the 
cage  with  a  lai'ge  snake,  which  had  not  used  its  fangs  for  ten  daj's.  The  snake 
struck  the  animal  with  both  fangs  just  above  the  eye,  and  again,  after  some  teasing, 
on  the  inside  of  the  thigh  high  up.  This  latter  wound  gave  great  pain,  and  the 
bitch,  when  lifted  from  the  box,  yelled  and  whined  during  several  minutes.  On 
examination,  it  was  found  that  only  one  fang  had  taken  efi'ect  in  the  thigh.  Around 
this  was  a  growing  circle  of  flattened  swelling,  of  which  the  dark  color  was  easily 
seen  through  the  skin,  which  in  this  place  was  white  and  yery  delicate.  During  half 
an  hour  the  animal  stood  on  her  feet,  her  head  hanging  a  little,  and  blood  running 
so  freely  from  the  wound  in  the  thigh,  that  an  ounce  or  two  may  have  been  thus 
lost  within  an  hour  of  the  period  of  the  bite.  At  the  close  of  the  half  hour  the 
bitch  suddenly  staggered,  and  fell  on  her  side,  then  rose  and  again  fell.  The 
heart,  which  before  the  poisoning  was  154,  rose  immediately  after  the  bite  to  175, 
stimulated,  perhaps,  by  pain  and  terror.  When  the  animal  fell  the  pulse  was 
about  160,  and  irregular  and  feeble.  After  this,  its  force  diminished  gradually,  but 
the  rhythm  changed  very  little  until  just  before  death,  when  it  fell  rapidly.  An 
hour  after  the  bite,  the  animal  still  lay  on  her  side  making  efforts  to  vomit.  Upon 
lifting  her  up  she  succeeded  in  vomiting  a  little  mucus.  At  this  time  she  also 
passed  a  loose  stool,  and  soon  after  lying  down  again,  made  water  freely.  The 
urine  ran  over  a  board  on  which  the  dog  lay.  A  little  of  it  drawn  up  with  a 
pipette,  proved  to  be  acid  and  to  contain  no  albumen.  One  hour  and  twenty 
minutes  after  the  poisoning,  the  head  was  suddenly  thrown  back,  the  pupils  con- 
tracted and  the  limbs  extended,  although  not  violently.  At  the  close  of  this 
momentary  convulsion,  the  bitch  drew  a  long  breath  and  expired. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  wound  was  a  good  deal  swollen,  and  contained  some  loosely- 
clotted  blood,  and  much  more  that  was  quite  fluid,  and  so  continued  upon  removal. 
The  tissues  in  the  track  of  the  fang  were  only  a  little  softened,  but  the  thigh  was 
literally  soaked  with  blood  down  to  the  periosteal  membrane,  which  was  darkly 
stained.     The  other  wound  was  but  little  swollen.     The  brain  was  apparently 


OF   THE   VE^TQM   OF   THE   R  ATT  LESIST  AKE.  75 

healthy.  The  lungs  were  normal,  the  pericardium  contained  a  little  bloody  serum, 
the  heart  was  marked  over  the  right  ventricle  with  three  star-like  spots  of  ecchy- 
mosis,  and  a  little  ribbon  of  extravasated  blood  ran  along  each  side  of  several  of 
the  smaller  coronary  veins. 

The  abdominal  organs  were  healthy,  and  the  intestines  the  seat  of  active  move- 
ment. The  extravasation  in  the  thigh  extended  up  through  the  femoral  ring,  and 
over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  so  that  the  areolar  tissues  between  the  left  side  of  the 
bladder  and  the  pelvic  bones  were  filled  with  fluid  blood.  The  heart  had  ceased 
to  beat  when  the  animal  was  examined,  but  it  acted  for  a  few  seconds  when  gal- 
vanized, and  was  locally  and  feebly  irritable  for  half  an  hour.  The  muscles  were 
excitable  during  about  the  same  time,  and  the  diaphragm  a  little  longer.  The 
sciatic  nerves  responded  during  thirteen  minutes,  and  the  phrenic  nerves  during 
twenty-eight  minutes. 

Experiment. — A  small  brown  dog,  weighing  twelve  pounds,  was  struck  with  both 
fangs  by  two  snakes,  one  biting  him  on  the  muzzle,  and  one  on  the  side.  The 
wound  on  the  side  did  not  swell,  that  on  the  flank  formed  within  two  hours  a 
prominent,  almost  pendulous  mass,  several  inches  long  and  wide.  Within  ten 
minutes  this  animal  became  feeble  and  reeled  about,  as  if  giddy.  At  length  he 
lay  down  on  his  side,  breathing  heavily.  The  muscles  about  the  flank  wound 
twitched  a  good  deal  at  first,  and  the  general  fremitus  was  well  marked  within 
thirty  minutes.  It  passed  ofi"  after  half  an  hour  longer,  only  recurring  at  intervals. 
Meanwhile  the  dog  lay  quiet,  and  although  evidently  sensible  of  surrounding 
objects,  seemed  in  no  pain.  The  heart-beat,  which,  after  the  bite,  was  strong  and 
rapid,  became  scarcely  perceptible  to  the  hand.  At  the  time  the  dog  lay  down, 
he  passed  urine  and  solid  feces,  but  did  not  attempt  to  vomit.  After  lying  thus 
for  five  hours  he  died  quietly. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  wound  on  the  flank  presented  the  usual  appearance.  The 
skin  beyond  the  bitten  nostril  was  pufiy  and  tumid,  the  nostrils  exuding  bloody 
mucus.  All  the  thoracic  organs  were  normal,  the  heart  as  usual,  the  right  side 
full  of  fluid  blood,  with  some  loose  dark  clots,  the  left  side  almost  empty.  Else- 
where the  organs  were  healthy,  excepting  the  kidneys,  which  were  full  of  blood, 
and  presented  the  appearance  of  acute  congestion.  On  further  inspection,  a  long 
thin  clot  was  found  in  the  left  ureter,  and  bloody  urine  in  the  bladder  below. 
Brain  not  examined. 

The  cases  above  reported  represent  so  well  the  character  of  the  pathological 
lesions  in  mortal  cases  of  Crotalus  bite,  that  it  would  be  needless  to  intrude  'them 
upon  these  pages  in  larger  number. 


76  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 


CHAPTER    VII. 
ACTION   OF   THE   VENOM   ON   THE    TISSUES   AND   FLUIDS. 

In  this  section,  the  subject  of  absorption,  hitherto  deferred,  naturally  presents 
itself  at  the  outset. 

The  most  important  of  the  questions  raised  in  this  connection,  regards -the  power 
of  the  stomach  to  absorb  the  venom  of  serpents,  a  question  to  which  Eedi^  gave  a 
negative  reply,  founded  on  the  experiments  of  his  viper  catcher,  and  upon  one  of 
his  own  on  a  kid,  to  which  he  gave  internally  the  venom  of  four  vipers.  Fontana,^ 
on  the  other  hand,  took  the  affirmative,  owing  to  a  single  experiment  on  a  pigeon, 
down  the  throat  of  which  he  poured  nearly  thirty  drops  of  venom,  killing  it  thus 
in  six  minutes.^ 

Prof.  Mangili*  has  since  repeated  these  experiments,  and  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  venom  of  the  viper  is  harmless,  when  taken  internally.  These  results 
were  founded  on  the  most  satisfactory  data,  and  leave  no  room  to  doubt  that  the 
venom  is  innocuous  when  thus  administered.  Before  and  since  his  experiments, 
many  observers  have  been  found  bold  enough  to  taste,  and  even  to  swallow,  the 
venom  of  serpents.  Thus,  Mead  and  his  assistants  tasted  the  venom  of  the  viper, 
EusselP  tasted  the  poison  of  the  Cobra,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  swallowed  it, 
although  he  has  credit  in  some  of  the  books  for  having  done  so. 

In  our  own  country,  experience  upon  this  matter  is  limited.  Harlan/  who  gave 
the  venom  internally  to  a  single  young  dog,  without  effect,  and  Jeter,'  who  states 
that  when  given  to  fasting  cats  and  dogs,  it  causes  sickness,  and  is  followed  by  the 
usual  consequences  of  snake  bite,  are  the  only  authorities,  if  we  except  an  extra- 
ordinary statement  made  by  Burnett'  upon  the  authority  of  another  person,  whose 


^  Francis  Redi,  Nobilis  Aretini  Experimenta.  Amstelodami,  IGYS.  Ex.  Italieo  Latinate  Donata, 
p.  14.  . 

Also,  Celsus,  who  says  of  the  venom  of  snakes,  "  Non  gustu,  sed  in  vulnere  nocent ;"  and  Lucan  before 
Mm,  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Cato  "  Morsu  virus  habent,  et  fatum  dente  minantur ;  pocula  morte 
carent."     Fontana,  vol.  ii.  p.  323. 

=  Fontana,  vol.  ii.  f).  321. 

3  Foutana  had  previously  arrived  at  the  negative  eonclusioa  from  experiments  upon  dogs,  who  took, 
however,  very  small  doses.     Vol.  i.  p.  58. 

«  Mangili,  quoted  in  Orfila,  Tox.  Gen.,  vol.  ii.  p.  852,  from  'II  Giornale  di  Fisica  Chemica,  etc.  Vol. 
ix.  p.  458  (ISl*?). 

=  Russell,  p.  63. 

«  Harlan,  Physiological  Researches,  p.  501. 

7  Jeter,  p.  20. 

*  Burnett,  Proc.  Boston  See.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  iv.  p.  323, 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  77 

imaginative  powers  must  have  been  of  the  strongest.  Other  native  authors  state 
that  the  poison  has  this  or  that  taste,  but  do  not  directly  assert  that  they  have 
acquired  such  knowledge  by  personal  experiments. 

I  have  already  stated  that  I  found  the  venom  tasteless.  I  did  not  venture  to 
swallow  it,  feeling  no  inclination  to  repeat  the  rash  acts  of  the  servants  of  Fontana 
and  Eedi. 

As  regards  the  question  of  absorption  by  a  mucous  surface,  I  once  saw  incident- 
ally made,  a  rather  curious  experiment  to  which  I  have  already  referred. 

A  large  Crotalus  swallowed  a  mouthful  of  its  own  venom,  but,  although  watched 
for  several  weeks,  it  seemed  to  have  suffered  no  ill  consequences. 

From  the  experiments  of  Harlan,  Mangili,  Russell,  Davy  and  others,  it  seems  to 
be  sufficiently  proved  that  the  unbroken  mucous  surface  of  the  mouth  has  no 
power  to  absorb  the  venom  of  serpents,  and  that  the  stomach  also  is  incapable  of 
admitting  this  poison  to  the  system  in  any  form  possessing  noxious  properties. 

Circumstances  interfered  to  prevent  me  from  extending  my  experiments  on  ab- 
sorption to  the  length  which  I  contemplated,  but  I  hope  to  resume  them  at  a  future 
period.  I  have,  however,  performed  two  experiments  upon  pulmonary  absorption, 
which  possess  so  much  interest  that  it  would  scarcely  be  proper  to  omit  them. 

Experiment. — A  large  pigeon  was  placed  between  my  knees  and  somewhat  com- 
pressed so  as  partially  to  empty  the  lungs.  At  this  moment  a  small  tube,  well  rounded 
and  with  an  opening  on  the  side  near  the  end,  was  thrust  carefully  through  the  glottis 
and  down  into  the  trachea.  As  soon  as  the  tube  was  in  place  I  blew  into  its  upper 
orifice,  thus  discharging  into  the  trachea  its  entire  contents,  consisting  of  about 
two  drops  of  venom  with  a  little  water.  This  manoeuvre,  suddenly  followed  by 
relaxation  of  the  pressure  on  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  bird,  secured  the  passage 
of  the  venom  into  the  smaller  bronchi,  and  perhaps  even  into  the  air- vesicles  them- 
selves. A  good  deal  of  wheezing  and  coughing  ensued,  and  within  ten  minutes 
the  pigeon  became  drowsy,  rocked  to  and  fro,  and  at  the  close  of  thirty-eight 
minutes  fell  down.  Convulsions  followed  at  the  forty-third  minute,  and  terminated 
in  death  at  the  forty-ninth. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  heart  was    still    irritable    and  contained   a    little  loosely 
clotted  blood  on  both  sides.     No  lesions  were  visible,  except  in  the  lungs,  both  of 
which  contained  large  extravasations  of  dark  blood  soaked  through  their  tissues  to  ■ 
such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  say,  whether  or  not,  it  was  fluid  or 
coagulated. 

Exjjeriment. — Another  pigeon  was  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one  last 
described,  except  that  the  venom  used  was  three  weeks  old,  and  amounted  to  two 
drops.  Death,  without  precedent  convulsions,  took  place  at  the  close  of  eight  and 
a  half  hours.  The  blood  was  diffluent  in  every  locality  examined,  and  the  left 
lung  contained  a  large  extravasation  of  dark  blood. 

The  above  cases  render  it  probable  that  the  delicate  lung  tissue  offers  no  perma- 
nent barrier  to  the  passage  of  the  venom.  There  is,  however,  a  possibility  of 
fallacy  in  these  experiments,  and  it  is  still  desirable  that  they  should  be  repeated 
on  a  larger  scale,  and  on  higher  animals. 

The  Wound. — The  wound  made  by  the  fang  sometimes  penetrates  half  an  inch, 


78  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

but  is  oftener  more  superficial.  So  far  as  a  fatal  result  is  concerned,  it  seems  to  be 
indiffereut,  whether  the  bite  takes  place  about  the  head  and  neck,  or  in  the  limbs.^ 
The  local  quivering  which  is  so  common,  seems  to  depend  upon  the  muscles  of  the 
part  having  been  wounded  and  envenomed,  whereas,  when  the  venom  enters 
only  the  ai'eolar  or  adipose  tissue,  this  symptom  either  does  not  occur  at  all,  or 
occurs  only  after  a  time.  The  swelling,  which  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  sur- 
rounds the  wound,  is  never  inflammatory  in  the  first  instance,  at  least  in  animals, 
and  especially  in  those  which  die,  and  in  which  the  rapidly  increasing  loss  of  tones 
forbids  the  presence  of  such  a  condition.  In  some  of  the  animals  who  recover, 
secondary  inflammation  and  gangrene,  with  more  or  less  formation  of  pus  may 
ensue.  The  primary  swelling,  then,  is  always  due  to  a  collection  of  blood,  some- 
times partially  coagulated,  at  others  perfectly  fluid,  and  apt  to  leak  drop  by  drop, 
out  of  the  open  fang  track,  when  the  opening  is  large,  and  the  part  bitten  is  highly 
vascular. 

The  effusion  of  blood  in  such  large  quantities  as  sometimes  takes  place,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  rapidity  with  which  its  fibrin  undergoes  destruction  at  high  tempe- 
ratures (100°  F.),  and  in  the  presence  of  such  amounts  of  venom  as  are  occasionally 
injected.  Under  these  circumstances  the  usual  arrest  of  hemorrhage  by  coagulation 
of  the  fibrin  of  the  blood  fails  to  take  place,  and  the  incoagulable  blood  soaks 
through  all  the  neighboring  tissues. 

In  other  instances,  as  we  have  seen,  the  blood  about  the  wound  clots,  owing 
either  to  the  relatively  small  amount  of  venom  present,  or  to  the  fact  of  a  sudden 
and  great  escape  of  blood  from  some  vessel  of  larger  size  than  is  usually  punctured 
by  the  fang.     In  no  case  are  the  clots  thus  formed  of  very  firm  texture." 

The  veins  about  the  wound  are  commonly  found  to  be  filled  with  dark  and  un- 
coagulable  blood,  so  that  the  effect  here  described,  is  exerted  not  only  upon  the 
effused  fluid,  but  also  upon  that  which  is  still  retained  within  the  vessels. 

Effect  of  the  Venom  on  the  Muscles. — The  influence  of  the  venom  upon  the  muscles 
of  the  wounded  part  has  been  already  described.  It  appears  to  be  due  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  venom  upon  the  sarcous  elements. 

As  I  supposed  it  possible,  however,  that  the  mere  puncture  might  be  competent 
to  cause  protracted  local  quivering,  I  punctured  exposed  muscles,  with  dry  fangs, 
previously  boiled,  and  then  stopped  with  wax.  Slight  twitches  followed,  but  no 
further  results  were  visible.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  I  exposed  the  living  muscle 
and  moistened  it  with  venom,  the  twitcliing  took  place  as  usual,  while,  when  the 
venom  was  injected  through  the  fang  into  the  interior  of  the  muscle,  the  convulsive 
quivering  was  yet  more  active  and  prolonged.  To  ascertain  whether  or  not  this 
was  due  to  direct  stimulation  of  the  muscular  tissue,  or  to  an  indirect  influence 
first  affecting  the  nerves  of  the  part,  I  executed  the  following  experiment: — 


■^  Unless  the  mere  swelling  destroys  life,  or  the  poison  be  deposited  near  a  large  vessel. 

"  It  is  said  that  the  pig  is  not  liable  to  die  from  Crotalus  bite,  and  it  is  well  known  that  it  attacks  the 
Rattlesnake  with  vigor  and -success.  Its  comparative  immunity  may,  possibly,  be  due  to  the  fact  that  its 
skin  is  very  thick  and  tough,  and  that  the  large  deposit  of  sub-cuticular  adipose  tissue  is  scantily  supplied 
with  bloodvessels.  Notwithstanding  this,  I  am  assured  upon  competent  authority,  that  when  the  pig  is 
struck  in  thin  and  vascular  parts  it  enjoys  no  peculiar  privilege. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  79 

Experiment. — A  large  frog  was  poisoned  with  woorara.  This  active  agent 
possesses  the  power  to  paralyze  the  motor  nerves,  and  to  leave  the  muscles  in  a 
highly  irritable  state.'^  The  animal  was  thus  placed  in  the  same  condition  as  though 
the  whole  motor  nervous  system  .had  been  removed  by  dissection,  without  serious 
injury  to  the  remaining  parts.  It  was  found  that  in  a  frog  so  prepared,  and  in 
which  the  motor  nerves  no  longer  responded  to  irritants,  the  muscles  still  quivered 
as  long  as  usual  when  bitten  by  the  snake,  so  that  I  felt  free  to  infer  that  this 
interesting  local  phenomenon  was  in  reality  due  to  the  direct  influence  of  the 
venom  upon  the  ultimate  sarcous  elements. 

After  a  few  minutes,  or  at  the  utmost,  half  an  hour,  these  spasmodic  movements 
cease ;  but  without  entirely  exhausting  the  irritability  of  the  muscles,  which  will, 
sometimes,  continue  to  respond  to  other  stimulants  until  their  structure  is  more 
profoundly  altered  by  the  continued  action  of  the  venom.  The  quivering  often 
extends  to  the  whole  muscular  system,  but  although  a  frequent,  this  is  not  an  in- 
variable symptom,  and  is  liable,  in  dogs,  to  be  confounded  with  the  fremitus  of 
terror,  to  which  they  are  very  subject.  It  is  in  them  a  more  common  symptom  of 
the  poisoning  than  it  is  in  rabbits,  while  in  birds  the  general  quivering  is  very 
rarely  met  with. 

The  influence  of  the  venom  upon  the  duration  of  muscular  irritability  I  have 
examined  in  many  animals,  but  especially  in  frogs.  Many  of  these  observations 
were  made  in  very  hot  weather,  but  were  finally  resumed,  in  the  early  autumn 
under  more  favorable  conditions  for  the  preservation  of  the  muscular  functions. 

Both  in  the  cases  of  acute  and  of  chronic  poisoning,  the  muscular  irritability  of 
the  frog  was  lost  earlier  than  is  usual  in  other  modes  of  death. 

Notwithstanding  this  result,  the  property  in  question  was  perfect  at  the  time  of 
the  death,  and  for  a  short  space  afterwards,  especially  in  acute  cases,  while,  in  some 
rare  instances,  it  survived  in  the  chin  muscles  during  twenty-four  hours. 

The  muscular  irritability  of  the  warm-blooded  animals  left  them  very  rapidly, 
but  was  often  so  well  marked  at,  or  just  after,  death,  as  to  forbid  us  to  refer  the 
death  to  the  loss  of  muscular  irritability  as  the  immediate,  or  even  the  remote 
cause. 

Rigor  Mortis. — The  action  of  the  venom  did  not  seem  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of 
the  sti'ongest  rigor  mortis.  It  came  on  in  different  animals  at  varying  periods,  but, 
so  far  as  I  have  observed,  was  never  entirely  absent  in  any  case.  Even  when  the 
blood  was  perfectly  diffluent,  this  post-mortem  phenomenon  was  noted,  a  fact  iDliicli 
should  utterly  forhid  us  tn  connect  its  occurrence  with  the  coagidation  of  the  blood,  as 
was  at  one  time  a  not  uncommon  opinion. 

Ultimate  Effect  of  Venom  on  Muscles. — The  final  influence  of  venom  upon  the 
muscular  structure  was  extremely  curious.  In  every  instance  it  softened  it  in  pro- 
portion to  the  length  of  the  time  during  which  it  remained  in  contact  with  it,  so 
that  after  even  a  few  hours  in  warm-blooded  animals,  and  after  a  rather  longer 
time  in  the  frog,  the  wounded  muscle  became  almost  diffluent,  and  assumed  a  dark 


'  CI.  Beruard,  Legons  sur  les  eifets  des  substances  tosiques  et  medicamenteuses.     Bailliere  et  fils. 
Paris,  1857,  p.  239  et  seq. 


80 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    TOXICOLOGY 


color  aud  somewhat  jelly-like  appearance.  The  structure  remained  entire  until  it 
was  pressed  upon  or  stretched,  when  it  lost  all  regularity,  and  offered  the  appear- 
ance under  the  microscope  of  a  minutely  granular  mass,  dotted  with  larger  gra- 
nules.    The  altered  character  of  the  muscle  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12. 


Fiff.  12. 


Appearance  of  muscular  fibre  wlien  mechanically  disturbed  after  contact  with  venom. 


Effect  on  the  Heart. — Continuing  the  study  of  the  action  of  the  venom  on  muscu- 
lar parts,  it  remains  to  examine  the  extent  to  which  the  heart  is  influenced. 

This  question  is  one  of  extreme  interest,  and  of  no  less  difficulty.  It  is  so 
important,  however,  in  its  bearings  upon  the  causation  of  death  in  acute  poisoning, 
that  I  have  spared  no  pains  to  investigate  it  by  every  means  in  my  power. 

My  first  observations  were  made  by  exposing  the  heart  of  the  frog,  and  observing 
it  before  and  after  the  animal  was  bitten.  Many  of  these  observations  failed  par- 
tially, or  entirely,  owing  to  the  frogs  having  survived  long  enough  to  pass  into  the 
stage  of  secondary  poisoning. 

In  most  of  the  cases  of  acute  poisoning  the  rhythm  and  force  of  the  heart  became 
affected  before  the  respiration  was  suspended,  and  the  organ  continued  to  pulsate 
more  or  less  perfectly  for  some  time  after  all  voluntary  and  reflex  motion  had 
ceased. 

It  is  scarcely  requisite  to  detail  these  observations  more  fully,  since  examples 
may  be  found  in  the  chapter  which  treats  of  the  action  of  the  venom  on  the 
batrachia.  I  shall  therefore  limit  myself  to  stating  that,  under  the  influence  of 
Crotalus  venom  the  batrachian  heart  becomes  enfeebled,  and  acts  more  slowly ; 
that  it  continues  to  act  after  the  limbs  have  ceased  to  respond  to  stimulus  by  reflex 
acts,  and  that  it  usually  stops  before  the  motor  nerves  lose  their  vitality. 

As  the  heart  of  the  frog  is  remarkably  independent  of  the  respiratory  and  other 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  81 

functions,  and  as,  moreover,  it  will  beat  longer,  when  cut  out  and  suspended,  than 
it  usually  does  when  subjected  in  its  normal  situation  to  the  influence  of  the  venom, 
it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  it  is  more  or  less  directly  affected  by  it. 
It  seemed  to  me  equally  plain,  however,  that  it  was  not  owing  to  the  arrest  of  the 
heart  that  the  animal  died.  In  fact,  the  heart  continued  to  act  after  some  of  the 
principal  nervous  functions,  such  as  reflex  acts,  were  over,  so  that  their  loss  was 
not  due  to  an  arrested  cii'culation. 

The  study  of  the  effect  of  venom  on  the  hearts  of  warm-blooded  animals  was 
one  of  still  greater  difficulty.  This  arose  from  the  fact  that  their  functions  are 
more  closely  related  to  one  another,  so  that  the  cessation  of  respiration  necessarily 
leads  to  loss  of  cardiac  power,  and  vice  versa;  since,  however,  the  determination  of 
the  question  before  us  was  essential  to  a  proper  study  of  the  remedies  for  venom 
poisoning,  I  felt  forced  to  continue  my  researches  in  this  direction,  notwithstanding 
the  obstacles  in  my  path. 

As  in  the  frog,  I  began  by  a  series  of  simple  observations  upon  the  changes  in 
the  heart  which  were  apparent  to  the  eye.  For  this  purpose,  I  opened  the  chests 
of  rabbits  sufficiently  to  obtain  a  view  of  the  heart,  the  action  of  which  was  sus- 
tained during  the  experiment  by  artificial  respiration. 

Experiment. — Small  male  rabbit;  pulse  280;  respiration  120.  Struck  at  12 
o'clock,  32  minutes,  in  the  right  flank.  The  animal  fell  in  two  minutes.  Artifi- 
cial respiration  was  at  once  used,  and,  owing  to  want  of  caution,  the  right  lung 
was  torn,  and  the  diaphragm  ruptured.  The  chest  was  then  opened.  The  heart 
was  acting  very  rapidly,  and  pretty  well  up  to  the  thirteenth  minute,  when  its 
rhythm  became  disturbed,  the  right  and  left  cavities  acting  separately.  The 
respiration  was  continued,  with  brief  intervals,  up  to  the  sixty-third  minute,  when 
the  auricles  alone  responded,  and  the  observation  terminated. 

Experiment. — Small  black  female  rabbit.  A  string  was  placed  under  the  trachea. 
The  heart  beat  too  rapidly  for  numei'ation.  Bitten  thrice  in  the  side  by  a  small 
snake  at  6.15  P.M.  Fourth  minute,  pupils  contracting.  Fifth  minute,  head 
falling.  Seventh  minute,  slight  general  convulsions ;  respiration  feeble  and  labor- 
ing. Tenth  minute,  slight  convulsions ;  pupils  dilated.  Twelfth  minute,  respira- 
tion stopped,  and  a  tube  being  placed  in  the  trachea,  regular  artificial  respiration 
was  accomplished  while  the  chest  was  opened,  and  the  heart  exposed.  At  first,  the 
heart  beat  regularly,  but  not  very  strongly.  At  the  eighteenth  minute,  its  rhythm 
became  altered,  two  auricular  contractions  talcing  place  during  each  ventricular  act. 
At  the  twenty-second  minute,  the  organ  was  acting  very  feebly,  the  auricles  alone 
beating,  and  the  respiration  was  therefore  discontinued. 

Experiment. — Small  male  rabbit.  In  this  case,  the  artificial  respiration  was 
made  before  the  natural  movement  was  over,  about  forty-four  minutes  after  the 
bite  was  inflicted.  No  convulsions  were  observed.  Although  the  artificial  respira- 
tion was  admirably  sustained,  the  rhythm  of  the  heart  became  disturbed  within 
twelve  minutes,  the  auricles'  beating  twice  as  fast  as  the  ventricles.  Before  this 
occurred,  the  heart  acted  well,  except  that  it  did  not  seem  to  possess  the  energy 
which  it  usually  does  under  other  circumstances. 

Experiment. — Large  male  rabbit.     The  trachea  was  prepared  as  usual,  except 
11 


82  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

that  a  tube  of  sufficient  size  was  placed  in  it  before  the  bite,  so  that  no  time  might 
be  lost. 

The  animal  was  struck  twice  in  the  left  thigh  at  4.20  P.  M.  At  the  seventh 
minute  it  fell,  and  at  the  thirtieth  minute,  the  respiration  being  very  feeble,  artificial 
respiration  was  made,  and  the  chest  opened.  The  heart  was  acting  well,  but  not 
perfectly,  the  same  want  of  completeness  in  its  systole  being  seen  as  was  noticed  in 
former  cases.  At  the  close  of  the  sixtieth  minute  from  the  time  of  the  bite,  the 
organ  became  more  markedly  feeble,  and  the  ventricles  acted  but  rarely.  In  this, 
as  in  all  other  like  observations,  the  heart  remained  irritable  to  galvanism  for  a 
short  time  after  it  ceased  to  pulsate,  and  locally  responsive  for  a  still  longer  period. 
It  was  plain  enough  from  these  experiments  that  the  artificial  respiration  was 
capable  of  prolonging  the  cardiac  functions,  but  not  usually  for  any  great  length  of 
time.  Moreover,  the  heart  was-  always  found  beating  in  animals  poisoned,  and 
opened  as  soon  as  respiration  ceased.  Again,  its  tissues  were  always  alive  to 
stimulus  for  a  short  period  after  its  rhythmic  movements  stopped,  so  that  there 
was  evidently  no  such  complete  local  paralysis  of  the  muscular  structures  as  is 
caused  by  upas-antiar  or  corroval.  When  an  animal  is  poisoned  with  these  last- 
mentioned  substances,  death  begins  at  the  heart ;  and  so  complete  is  the  palsy  of 
this  organ,  that  the  most  violent  galvanic  stimulus  fails  to  provoke  in  it  the  least 
response,  even  when  applied  immediately  after  it  has  ceased  to  pulsate  rhythmically.^ 

These  views  were  strengthened  by  the  following  experiment :  Being  aware  that 
the  young  of  warm-blooded  animals  approximate  to  the  condition  of  cold-blooded 
creatures,  in  regard  to  the  comparative  independence  of  their  cardiac  and  respira- 
tory functions,  I  exposed  several  kittens  of  a  week  old  to  be  bitten.  As  soon  as 
respiration  ceased  their  hearts  were  laid  bare,  and  found  to  be  beating  quite 
actively.  Thus,  in  one  case,  the  kitten  was  bitten  thrice,  by  as  many  rather  ex- 
hausted snakes,  between  three  minutes  of  six,  and  eleven  minutes  after  six. 

At  6.19  P.  M.  sensation  was  gone  in  the  limbs;  and  at  6.23,  all  motion  ceased, 
except  occasional  diaphragmatic  acts.  At  6.25,  the  dorsal  spine  was  divided,  and 
no  movement  took  place,  the  left  sciatic  remaining  perfectly  irritable.  During  this 
time  the  heart  continued  to  act  regularly,  and  at  6.44,  was  still  able  to  respond  to 
stimulus  by  feeble,  but  repeated  pulses;  one  stimulation  being  followed  by  three 
or  four  complete  pulsations. 

In  all  human  cases  of  Crotalus  poisoning,  the  general  feebleness  which  follows  a 
severe  bite  is  most  notable.  As  we  have  seen,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  at 
least  a  part  of  this  deadly  prostration  may  be  due  to  an  effect  on  the  heart,  while 
on  the  whole,  there  is  not  reason  to  suppose  that  its  tissues  are  so  paralyzed  as  to 
permit  us  to  assert  that  death  begins  at  the  cardiac  centre. 

As  it  was  possible  that  I  might  be  deceived  as  to  the  appearance  of  lack  of  power 
in  the  heart,  I  subjected  the  matter  to  more  accurate  examination.  For  this  pur- 
pose, I  instituted  the  following  experiments  : — 

Experiment. — A  large  brindled  dog  was  properly  secured  on  the  table,  and  his 


^  See  a  paper  on  new  varieties  of  woorara  by  Prof.  Hammond  and  the  author,  Amer.  Jour,  of  the 
Med.  Sci.,  July,  1859. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  83 

right  femoral  artery  laid  bare.  The  brass  nozzle  of  M.  Bernard's  cardiometer^  was 
tied  fast  in  the  vessel,  and  the  blood  allowed  to  act  on  the  column  of  mercury. 

At  4  o'clock,  58  minutes,  the  pulse  being  99,  and  the  respiration  21,  the  constant 
pressure  in  the  artery  was  found  to  be  represented  by  eighty  millimetres  of  the 
column  of  mercury,  which  at  every  heart  beat  rose  to  115  millimetres. 

The  following  record  was  then  obtained : — 

Constant  arterial  Rising  at  each 

Time.  pressure.  heart  beat  to  Difference. 

4.58  to  5.14  SO-""  IIS-^  35™ 

A  clot  forming,   the  column  ceased  to  move.     The  tube  was  cleansed  and  replaced  at 

5.16,        when  again  a  clot  formed,  and  the  artery  was  tied,  and  the  left  carotid  laid  bare.     On 
inserting  the  tube  in  this  latter  vessel,  the  record  was  as  follows  : — 

5.58  110  145  35 

6 

6.1        One  large  snake  was  allowed  to  bite  the  dog's  left  thigh.     The  dog  struggled,  and  the  mus- 
cles about  the  wound  quivered  remarkably. 

6.4|  105  120  15 

Respiration  perfect  as  yet.     Heart  pulse  115,  respiration  22. 

6.6  95  115        •  20 

6.7  Pulse  beats  120,  respiration  somewhat  laborious. 

6.9  102  120  18 

6.10  105  115  10 
A  clot  having  formed,  the  tube  was  again  removed,  cleaned,  and  replaced. 

6.19  85  105  15 

6.20  87  109  -  .  22 

6.21  85  110  25 

At  this  time  a  clot  formed,  and  as  some  blood  was  lost  in  replacing  the  tube,  the 
observation  terminated.  The  artery  was  tied,  and  the  dog  set  at  liberty.  He  was 
very  sick  for  two  or  three  days,  but  finally  recovered,  surviving  the  ligation  of  two 
arteries,  and  the  bite  of  the  snake. 

Experiment. — A  yellow  mongrel  of  middle  size  was  secured  as  usual.  About  two 
ounces  of  blood  were  lost  while  placing  the  tube  in  the  carotid.  At  5  o'clock, 
30  minutes,  the  column  rose  to  114  millimetres,  and  at  each  heart  beat  to  127 
millimetres,  so  that  13  millimetres  represented  the  heart  force. 

These  figures  remaining  the  same  during  two  minutes,  and  the  respirations  being 
26,  and  tranquil,  the  dog  was  bitten  by  three  snakes,  so  as  to  be  the  more  profoundly 
affected. 


*  The  cardiometer  consists  of  a  vessel,  about  three  inches  high,  and  of  the  same  diameter.  A  glass 
tube,  with  a  scale  of  millimetre  divisions,  passes  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  is  open  at  both 
ends.  A  second  tube  opens  through  the  top  of  the  vessel  into  its  interior,  and  is  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock. To  its  nozzle  is  attached  a  short  caoutchouc  tube,  which  is  tenninated  by  a  brass  tube,_  made  to 
fit  the  artery  selected  for  trial.  The  main  vessel  is  now  filled  with  mercury  up  to  0  of  the  scale.  The 
caoutchouc  tube  is  next  filled  with  a  strong  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  secured  in  the  artery. 
The  stopcock  being  turned,  the  mercury  rises  to  a  point  which  marks  the  height  of  a  column  of  mercury 
capable  of  being  sustained  by  the  constant  pressure  under  which  the  blood  circulates  in  the  arteries.  At 
each  heart  beat,  and  at  each  deep  expiration,  the  column  rises  a  little,  to  fall  anew,  as  the  increased  pres- 
sure thus  exerted  is  removed. 


84  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

Constant  arterial  Eising  at  each 

Time.  pressure.  lieart  beat  to  Difference. 

5.34  94""  110™  16™ 

5.35  95  110  10 
Pulse  138.     The  respiration  was  now  laborious,  at  each  expiratiou  the  column  rising  27"". 

5.36  93  9T  •  4 
Respiration  irregular. 

5.3T  92  95  3 

5.38i  85  .90  5 

Respiration  but  12  in  the  minute. 
5.48      Clots  formed,  and  the  tube  was  replaced. 
5.49i  10  .  72  or  73 

The  heart  pressure  was  now  so  slight,  that  I  feared  lest  a  clot  might  exist  in  the  trunk  of 
the  artery,  and  therefore  repeated  the  observations  on  the  femoral  artery,  which  gave  at — 
6.10  50  54  4 

rising  in  deep  expiration  to — 

67 
6.15  53  56  3 

Still  doubtful  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  observation,  I  allowed  a  small  jet  of  blood  to 
escape,  and  having  thus  made  sure  of  the  absence  of  clot,  replaced  the  tube,  and  at  once 
marked  at — 
6.21  53  56  3 

The  respiration  was  now  labored  and  slow,  the  pulse  being  about  190. 

At  6.23,  the  artery  was  cut  across,  and  the  dog  allowed  to  bleed  to  death. 
Despite  the  slow  and  embarrassed  breathing,  the  blood  ran  red  from  the  divided 
vessel.  It  clotted  very  well  in  three  to  five  minutes.  The  effect  of  the  venom  on 
the  force  of  the  heart  is  well  seen  in  the  above  stated  experiments.  In  them,  and 
in  other  like  observations,  the  power  of  the  ventricular  systole  diminished  very 
rapidly  soon  after  the  bite,  and  at  the  same  time,  or  just  afterwards,  the  general 
loss  of  tone  was  strikingly  indicated  by  the  diminution  of  the  independent  arterial 
pi'essure.  In  the  first  case,  the  animal  rallied  from  the  early  effect  of  the  venom, 
and  the  heart  force  increased,  although  not  so  much  as  to  regain  completely  its 
primary  power.  The  cases  just  stated  were  selected  from  a  series  of  seven  similar 
experiments,  which  I  do  not  think  it  requisite  to  quote  at  length.  In  all  of  them 
the  results  were  the  same  in  kind,  although  varying  somewhat  in  degree. 

In  most  of  these  cases,  the  heart  suffered  somewhat  before  respiration  was  enfeebled 
or  visibly  altered.  But  it  was  possible  that  the  respiration  might  be  embarrassed, 
and  yet  not  in  so  marked  a  manner  as  to  betray  itself  to  the  eye.  I  thought  it  likely 
that  by  destroying  the  normal  respiratory  influence,  and  sustaining  the  heart  by 
insuflSation,  I  might  be  able  to  place  the  cardiac  organ  in  a  condition  which  would 
render  it  independent  of  any  possible  influence  from  the  pulmonary  organs. 

At  first,  I  attempted  to  attain  this  end  by  cutting  both  pneumogastric  nerves,  and 
thus  destroying  the  main  channels  through  which  impressions  originating  in  the 
lungs  are  conveyed  to  the  heart.  My  first  experiments  failed,  owing  to  my  having 
used  young  dogs  in  whom  the  section  of  both  nerves  above  the  point  at  which  the 
recurrent  laryngeal  nerves  are  given  off,  never  fails  to  cause  asphyxia  by  collapse 
of  the  lips  of  the  larynx.  To  guard  against  this  result,  which,  even  in  older  ani- 
mals, embarrasses  the  respiration,  I  placed  a  tube  in  the  trachea,  before  dividing 
the  nerve  trunks.     The  respiratory  acts  became  immediately  very  deep  and  laboi'ed. 


OF   THE   VENOM   OP   THE    RATTLE  S  If  AKE.  85 

and,  as  usual,  the  heart  began  to  beat  with  excessive  rapidity,  but  with  such  feeble- 
ness as  to  raise  the  mercurial  column  in  the  cardiometer  only  five  or  six  milli- 
metres at  each  systole.  With  so  feeble  a  beat  it  would  have  been  difficult  to 
estimate  any  such  slight  increment  of  feebleness  as. might  at  first  be  produced  by 
the  venom.  Eeluctantly,  therefore,  this  method,  which  had  promised  so  much,  was 
abandoned.  I  finally  succeeded  by  resorting  to  the  method  detailed  in  the  follow- 
ing cases,  which  I  have  chosen  for  record  here,  as  being  sufficiently  illustrative  of 
the  series  to  which  they  belong. 

Ea:periment. — A  small  black  and  yellow  cur-bitch  was  secured  as  usual.  The 
pulse  was  140  ;  respiration  29.  The  trachea  was  opened,  and  a  tube  placed  in  it. 
Next,  the  medulla  oblongata  was  destroyed  by  pithing,  during  which  about  four 
ounces  of  blood  were  lost.  Kespiration  instantly  ceased,  and  the  heart-pulse  rose 
to  160.     Artificial  respiration  was  now  made  about  forty  times  in  the  minute. 

The  femoral  artery  was  opened,  and  the  cardiometer  tube  fitted  in  it,  and  secured 
at  5.20  P.  M.  The  constant  of  arterial  pressure  was  sixty  millimetres,  the  heart 
beat  raising  the  column  from  six  to  twenty  millimetres.  During  three  or  four 
minutes  these  numbers  remained  about  the  same,  and  accordingly  a  standard  of 
comparison  having  thus  been  attained,  the  dog  was  bitten  twice  in  three  minutes 
by  two  snakes  of  large  size.  In  the  next  two  minutes,  the  column  fluctuated  be- 
tween sixty-seven  and  seventy-five  millimetres,  thus  giving  but  eight  millimetres 
to  represent  the  heart  force.  The  change  was  so  notable,  that  my  assistants  sup- 
posed a  clot  might  be  forming,  and  the  tube  was  therefore  removed,  cleansed,  and 
replaced.     It  was  perfectly  patent,  and  the  artery  was  unobstructed. 

Six  minutes  after  the  bite,  the  constant  was  forty  millimetres,  with  ten  milli- 
metres of  rise  at  each  systole.  At  the  eighth  minute,  the  constant  was  thirty  mil- 
limetres, the  rise  fifteen  millimetres.  This  was,  however,  the  maximum,  and 
usually  the  heart  force  was  but  four  to  five  millimetres.  The  constant  was  now 
rapidly  falling.  The  heart  beat  very  irregularly,  never  raising  the  mercury  above 
twelve  millimetres.  There  was  usually  one  strong  pulsation,  and  then  four  feeble 
ones,  of  two  to  four  millimetres. 

The  quivering  about  the  wound  continued  very  remarkable  throughout  the  obser- 
vation. Upon  studying  this  case,  it  appeared  that  the  heart  and  the  constant  of 
arterial  pressure  were  both  affected  very  early,  but  I  was  not  disposed  to  regard  all 
the  ultimate  effects  as  due  to  the  venom.  In  a  case  so  removed  from  normal  phy- 
siological conditions,  and  so  surrounded  with  causes  of  depression,  it  was  only 
possible  to  draw  an  inference  from  the  occurrences  of  the  first  few  minutes  after 
the  introduction  of  a  new  element — the  bite  of  the  snake. 

Additional  observations,  similar  to  that  just  recorded,  went  equally  to  show 
that  the  heart  loses  power  in  the  first  stage  of  Crotalus  poisoning,  and  that  the 
constant  arterial  pressure  undergoes  a  rapid  and  singular  diminution.  Considera- 
tions above  stated,  would  have  induced  me  to  question  still  more  rigidly  the  results 
of  experiments  of  so  complicated  a  nature,  were  it  not  that  they  are  so  well  sup- 
ported by  all  the  preceding  evidence,  and  by  the  numerous  records  of  symptoms  in 
cases  of  venom  poisoning  in  man. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  in  some  instances  of  death,  in  rabbits,  for  example,  arti- 


86  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

ficial  respiration  failed  almost  totally  to  sustain  the  cardiac  power ;  but  even  in 
these  the  heart  i-emained  irritable  to  direct  stimulus,  and  there  was  consequently 
no  such  thorough  paralysis  of  the  sarcous  elements  as  is  seen  in  some  other 
poisonings. 

Action  of  Venom  on  the  Capillary  System. — The  experiments  on  the  heart  force 
furnish  incidental  information  as  to  the  absence  of  capillary  irritation  from  the 
presence  of  venom  in  the  circulation. 

John  Eeid,  of  Edinburgh,  has  very  well  shown  in  his  experiments  on  asphyxia 
that  when  black  blood,  or  any  other  stimulant,  enters  the  capillaries,  the  arterial 
pi'essure  increases  largely,  as  is  proved  by  the  rise  of  the  mercury  in  the  cardio- 
meter.  No  such  increase  of  pressure  followed  the  introduction  of  venom  into  the 
system,  and  we  may  therefore  infer  that  it  exerts  no  very  marked  influence  of  this 
kind  upon  the  vessels  in  question. 

In  frogs,  poisoned  by  venom,  the  capillary  circulation  is  unaltered,  until  the  heart 
itself  becomes  too  feeble  to  sustain  it. 

When  the  frog's  foot  is  placed  under  the  microscope,  and  wetted  with  venom,  no 
change  occurs,  because  the  skin  refuses  to  admit  the  poison.  If  we  attempt  to 
introduce  it  into  the  web  through  a  wound,  the  mechanical  irritation  produced  by 
the  instrument  so  affects  the  local  circulation  as  to  baffle  the  observer  completely. 

Action  of  the  Venom  upon  the  Intestinal  Movements. — The  motions  of  the  intestinal 
canal  were  unaffected  by  Crotalus  poisoning,  and  in  all  cases  were  as  active  as  after 
other  modes  of  death. 

Action  of  the  Venom  ripon  Ciliary  Movement. — In  a  number  of  cases  of  acute  and 
chronic  poisoning,  I  examined  the"  cilia  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat  of 
the  frog.     Their  activity -appeared  to  be  undisturbed  in  both  forms  of  the  malady. 

Action  of  the  Venom  on  the  Nervous  System.  Direct  Effects  of  Venom  on  Nerve 
Trunks. — The  older  observers  had  already  shown  that  the  direct  contact  of  venom 
and  nerve  matter  produced  no  early  local  paralysis  of  the  nerve  thus  treated.  I 
have  repeated  and  modified  these  experiments,  making  use  of  the  venom  of  the 
Crotalus. 

Experiment. — The  leg  of  a  frog,  prepared  as  if  for  use  for  a  galvanoscope,  was 
placed  in  a  wide  test-tube,  and  the  long  sciatic  nerve  laid  upon  a  glass  slide.  Upon 
applying  gentle  mechanical  or  galvanic  irritants  to  the  nerve  trunk,  the  muscles  of 
the  leg  moved  freely.  A  drop  of  pure  venom  was  then  let  fall  on  the  nerve,  along 
which  it  ran  by  capillary  attraction,  so  as  to  wet  about  one-third  of  an  inch  of  its 
length.  At  the  close  of  ten  minutes  the  nerve  still  reacted  well.  In  a  second  case 
treated  in  the  same  way,  but  subjected  to  rather  more  of  the  venom,  the  nerve 
acted  well  after  eighteen  minutes ;  and  in  a  third  nerve  similarly  situated,  irrita- 
bility was  excellent  at  the  close  of  thirty-two  minutes. 

In  a  second  series  of  experiments,  the  same  conclusion  was  reached  by.  another 
route. 

Experiment. — A  large  frog  was  chosen,  and  the  right  sciatic  nerve  isolated  in 
almost  half  an  inch  of  its  course.  A  little  gutter  of  wax  was  slipped  under  the 
nerve,  and  a  rather  thin  solution  of  venom  in  water  applied  to  the  nerve  trunk 
during  five  minutes.     The  wax  groove,  in  which  lay  the  nerve,  served  to  retain 


OF  THE  YENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  8T 

the  venom  in  contact  with  its  exterior.  At  the  close  of  seven  minutes  the  leg  still 
moved  with  ease,  when  the  frog's  body  was  irritated.  The  nerve  was  then  incised 
lengthwise,  and  a  little  pure  venom  dropped  within  the  slit  and  on  the  nerve. 

A  minute  amount  of  moisture  being  applied  to  the  nerve,  with  the  aid  of  a 
camel's  hair  brush,  from  time  to  time,  it  was  found  to  carry  irtipressions  to  or  from 
the  nerve  centres  quite  well  at  the  end  of  an  hour.  On  irritating  the  right  foot, 
both  legs  were  moved  freely,  and  on  irritating  the  unwounded  left  leg,  a  like  result 
was  observed.  When  released,  the  frog  leaped  about,  using  both  legs  with  ease 
and  activity.  Twenty-four  hours  later  it  was  still  able  to  use  both  legs,  although 
the  muscles  about  the  wounded  part  were  softened  by  the  venom,  a  change  which 
had  not  visibly  acted  on  the  nerve  trunk.  The  frog  finally  recovered.  Upon 
several  occasions,  as  opportunity  offered,  I  repeated  these  experiments,  but  without 
arriving  at  any  other  conclusion  than  that  the  venom  exerted  no  early  action  upon 
the  vital  properties  of  nerves  to  which  it  was  applied. 

Action  of  the  Venom  upon  the  Sensory  and  Motor  Nerves,  and  upon  the  Nerve 
Centres. — In  the  conduct  of  this  portion  of  my  research,  I  endeavored  to  ascertain 
which  order  of  nerves  was  first  aifected  by  the  venom.     For  this  purpose, 

Experiment. — I  tied  the  left  femoral  artery  of  a  frog  high  up,  and  then  had  the 
frog  bitten  in  the  back  by  two  snakes.  At  the  seventy-sixth  minute  all  motion, 
voluntary  and  reflex,  had  ceased.  On  galvanizing  the  right  sciatic  nerve,  no  reflex 
acts  ensued,  but  the  muscles  of  the  right  leg  moved  as  freely  as  those  of  the  other 
limb,  which  I  had  insulated  from  the  effects  of  the  venom  by  cutting  off  its  circu- 
lation. The  motor  nerves  were  therefore  unaffected.  If  the  sensory  nerves  and 
the  centres  had  been  also  capable  of  transmitting  impressions,  and  responding  to 
them,  there  would  have  been  reflex  movements  produced. 

Numerous  repetitions  of  this  experiment  convinced  me  that  either  the  sensory 
nerves  had  lost  their  powers,  or  that  the  nerve-centres  were  at  fault.  This  question 
was  set  at  rest  by  the  following  means : — 

Experiment. — A  frog  was  poisoned,  and  as  soon  as  all  movement  was  over  except 
that  of  the  heart,  the  spine  was  divided,  and  a  probe  thrust  up  and  down.  No 
motion  resulted.  The  irritability  of  the  motor  nerves  in  the  sciatic  trunk  was  next 
tested,  and  found  to  be  nearly  perfect. 

The  loss  of  nervous  function  begins,  then,  at  the  centres ;  and  such  being  the 
case,  we  cannot  infer  logically  that  the  sensory  nerves  are  paralyzed,  but  only  that 
they  have  no  longer  any  means  of  expressing  their  sensibility,  if  it  still  exists. 

These  experiments  were  repeated  again  and  again  upon  warm-blooded  animals, 
in  whom  the  action  of  the  heart  proved  capable  of  being  sustained  for  a  time  by 
artificial  respiration. 

Experiment. — A  large  rabbit,  male,  was  twice  struck  at  5.10.  At  5.20  it  fell, 
and  in  twenty-eight  minutes  from  the  time  of  the  bite,  the  respiration  stopped. 
Artificial  insufflation  was  then  employed,  as  usual.  It  seemed  to  sustain  the  heart's 
action  pretty  well  for  about  twelve  minutes.  During  this  time  the  dorsal  spine 
was  cut  across;  no  motion  resulted.  A  probe  being  thrust  up  and. down  the  spine, 
feeble  quivering  of  the  nearer  spinal  muscles  took  place,  but  the  limbs  did  not 


88  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

move.  On  dividing  the  sciatic  nerves,  free  motion  was  observed,  and  the  phrenic 
trunk  was  likewise  irritable. 

In  another  set  of  cases,  the  centres  and  nerve-trunks  were  galvanized  immediately 
after  the  natural  respiration  ceased,  and  before  the  heart  was  quite  at  rest.  Still, 
the  same  results  were  observed,  so  that  it  became  clear  that  death  took  place  rather 
from  paralysis  of  the  centres  than  from  loss  of  function  in  the  efferent  nerves. 

The  duration  of  irritability  in  the  motor  nerves  of  the  frog  was  observed  to  be 
less  under  venom  poisoning  than  under  death  by  decapitation,  for  example.  It  is 
to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  where  the  heart  ceases  to  beat,  or  beats  too 
feebly  to  circulate  the  blood,  the  loss  of  nerve  power  may  be  due  to  this  cause 
alone,  as  Kolliker  has  very  well  demonstrated.  Yet,  as  we  have  seen,  this  source 
of  fallacy  may  be  readily  eliminated. 

Effect  of  the  Venom  upon  the  Calorifacient  Functions. — In  very  acute  cases  of  Cro- 
talus  poisoning,  death  may  occur  so  suddenly  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  a  fall 
of  temperature.  The  following  experiment  is  a  fair  type  of  what  occurs  in  most 
cases  which  do  not  perish  within  a  few  minutes. 

Exijeriment. — Temperature  of  the  air  72°  F.  At  eight  minutes  to  five  P.  M.,  a 
very  accurate  thermometer  capable  of  indicating  tenths  of  degrees^  was  placed  in 
the  cloac  of  a  pigeon,  and  was  found  to  mark  108°  F.  As  the  pigeon  became 
tranquil,  it  fell  to  107.5°  F.  The  pigeon  was  then  exposed  to  the  bite  of  a  snake 
two  and  a  half  feet  long.     Great  quivering  of  the  muscles  ensued. 

At  the  tenth  minute,  the  temperature  was  107.2°  F.,  respiration  31. 

The  followino;  record  was  then  obtained  : — 


Time  after  death. 

Temperature. 

14th  minute 

106.8° 

19th       " 

105.5 

22d        " 

105.8 

25th       " 

104.8 

28th       " 

104.3 

The  bulb  at  this  time  slipped  a  litth 

31st       " 

104.4 

34th       " 

104.4 

SYth       " 

104.2 

Respiration  40. 

40th       " 

103.9 

Respiration  jerking. 

43d 

103.5 

46th 

103.3 

49th       " 

103.1 

52d 

103. 

Respiration  52. 

55th       " 

102.5 

Slight  convulsions. 

58th       " 

101.5 

Respiration  irregular  and  slow — 12. 

61st 

Respiration  ceased. 

62d 

101.3 

63d 

100.9 

66th       " 

100. 

'  This  instrument  was  made  by  J.  W.  Queen  &  Co.,  the  well-known  opticians,  No.  924  Chestnut  Street, 
Philadelphia,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  much  valuable  aid  in  making  and  altering  the  numerous  instru- 
ments which  from  time  to  time  have  been  necessary  in  various  physiological  researches. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  89 

The  observation  here  ended.  The  heart  blood  clotted  very  rapidly,  but  not  very 
firmly.  In  addition  to  these  facts,  I  may  observe  that  in  dogs  who  survived  the 
first  action  of  the  venom,  and  died  at  the  close  of  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours, 
the  temperature  of  the  rectum  was  found  to  be  a  degree  or  more  below  the  normal 
standard.     On  the  near  approach  of  death  it  fell  rapidly. 

The  experiments  just  related  point  plainly  to  the  necessity  of  sustaining  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  body  in  severe  cases  of  Crotalus  bite.  The  value  of 
this  precaution  in  other  forms  of  poisoning  has  been  admirably  illustrated  by  M. 
Brown-Sequard.  All  that  he  has  said  of  narcotic  and  other  depressing  agents  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  cases  before  us.^ 

Effect  of  Venom  on  the  Blood. — The  study  of  the  vital  fluid  in  cases  of  acute  or 
primary  poisoning  is  of  a  merely  negative  value.  An  animal,  and  especially  a 
warm-blooded  animal  which  dies  within  a  minute  or  two,  or  after  even  a  longer 
time,  presents  us  with  none  of  those  profound  alterations  of  the  blood  which 
characterize  all  instances  of  secondary  poisoning.  A  pigeon,  for  instance,  is  stricken, 
it  droops,  falls,  and  dies  within  thirty  seconds,  as  may  happen.  Its  blood  is  red, 
and  coagulates  perfectly.  Its  blood-corpuscles  are  ideally  healthy.  The  tissues 
and  fluids  beyond  the  wound  are,  pathologically,  as  they  would  be  after  poisoning 
by  opium  or  woorara.  In  such  a  case  no  physiologist  could  impute  the  death  to 
an  altered  blood,  and  its  positive  or  negative  effects  on  the  essential  nutrition  and 
oxygenation  of  nerve  and  muscle.  The  line  of  difference  here  between  acute  or 
primary,  and  chronic  or  secondary  poisoning  by  Crotalus  venom,  is  drawn  most 
definitely,  and  although  every  possible  variety  of  modified  cases  may  occur,  so  as 
to  mingle  the  two  modes  of  death  into  one  deadly  draught,  the  two  sets  of  fatal 
cases  will  still  remain  characteristically  separated,  and  by  no  stronger  difference 
than  that  of  the  pathology  of  the  blood  in  the  respective  instances. 

If  in  the  secondary  poisonings  we  examine  first  the  obvious  physical  characters 
of  the  blood,  we  shall  observe  that  it  is  very  dark  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  but 
somewhat  redder  in  the  left  than  the  right  heart.  Both  the  color  and  the  accumu- 
lation in  the  veins  seem  to  be  due  to  the  apnoea  which  ushers  in  the  death,  as  is 
clear  from  what  I  already  have  said,  and  from  the  experiments  which  I  shall 
presently  relate  in  connection  with  the  question  of  coagulation. 

As  I  have  before  stated,  the  longer  the  death  is  delayed,  the  more  apt  is  the 
blood  to  become  incoagulable.  So  diffluent  was  it  in  some  cases,  that  I  have  poured 
it  from  glass  to  glass  like  water  and  kept  it  thus  until  it  decomposed  completely. 
In  other  cases  the  heart  contained  a  few  loose  and  very  weak  clots,  and  in  others 
again,  only  rare  shreds  of  coagulum  were  met  with. 

What  effect  has  the  direct  mixture  of  venom  and  blood  ?  what  becomes  of  the 
fibrin  in  venom  poisoning?  and  what  is  the  cause  of  the  change  in  the  condition 
of -the  fibrin  ?  are  the  material  questions  which  naturally  present  themselves  for 
answer. 

Experiment. — One  drop  of  venom  was  put  on  a  slide  and  a  drop  of  blood  from  a 


^  Experimental  Researches  applied  to  Physiology  and  Pathology,  byE.  Brown-S(5quard,  M.  D.,  of  the 
Faculty  of  Paris,  etc.  etc.  N.  Y.  H.  Bailliere,  1853,  p.  26  et  seq. 
12 


90 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    TOXICOLOGY 


pigeon's  wounded  wing  allowed  to  fall  upon  it.  They  were  instantly  mixed. 
Witliin  three  minutes  the  mass  had  coagulated  firmly,  and  within  ten  it  was  of 
arterial  redness. 

Experiment. — One  drop  of  arterial  blood  from  the  pigeon  was  mixed  with  one  of 
venom.     Coagulation  took  place  as  usual,  but  the  blood  did  not  darken. 

The  last  experiment  was  repeated,  substituting  venous  blood,  coagulation  ensued, 
and  on  exposure  the  blood  became  of  arterial  redness. 

Experiment. — Two  drops  of  venom  were  added  to  one  of  pigeon's  blood.  Coagula- 
tion took  place  within  four  minutes.  Pure  blood  from  the  pigeon  was  frequently 
found  to  coagulate  a  little  sooner  than  this.  So  small  a  degree  of  retardation  may 
have  been  due  to  the  thick  and  gummy  nature  of  the  admixed  venom. 

As  I  was  anxious  to  verify  these  observations,  I  instituted  a  number  of  experi- 
ments, some  of  which  are  briefly  stated  in  the  table  below.  Simple  as  the  conduct 
of  such  experiments  may  seem,  they  are  liable  to  fallacies.  If,  for  instance,  care 
be  not  taken,  the  blood  coagulates  before  time  is  allowed  to  mix  it  with  the  venom. 
Or  again,  the  mechanical  process  of  mingling  is  carried  on  too  long,  and  the  feeble 
clots  which  alone  are  formed  in  the  case  of  some  animals,  may  thus  be  so  broken 
up  as  to  escape  notice  in  the  minute  amounts  of  blood  we  are  compelled  to  employ. 


No. 

Kind  of  blood  used. 

Amount  of  venom  pre- 
viously mixed  with  one 
or  two  drops  of  water. 

Amount  of  blood. 

Kesult. 

1 

Crotalus  durissus. 

One  drop. 

About  ten  drops. 

Coagulated  within  half  an  hour,  clot 
weak. 

a 

"               " 

One-half  of  a  drop. 

About  twenty  drops. 

Coagulated  in  ten  minutes. 

8 

Frog,  Raiia  pipiens. 

One-fifth  of  a  drop. 
One-half  of  a  drop. 

Six  drops. 

Coagulated  well. 

4 

Reed-birJ. 

One-fifth  of  a  drop. 

Five  drops. 

Clot  formed  rapidly,  and  was  so  loose 
and  weak  that  it  broke  up  completely 
and  easily  during  the  process  of  min- 
gling the  blood  and  the  venom,  and 
at  first  led  to  the  belief  that  none 
had  formed. 

5 

" 

One-fifth  of  a  drop. 

it        li 

Coagulated  loosely.     All  the  clots  in 
this  blood  were  of  this  nature. 

6 

Dog  (a  small          1 
brown  terrier),    j 

One-quarter  of  a  drop. 

"         " 

Coagulated  perfectly  well. 

One-half  of  a  drop. 
One-fifteenth  of  a  drop. 

,"         I 

!'.                    "               "a 

7 

Man. 

One-fifteenth  of  a  drop. 

Seven  drops. 

"                    "               " 

The  specimens  of  blood  described  in  this  table  were  usually  set  aside  after  coagu- 
lating, and  the  watch-glasses  in  which  they  were  placed  remained  covered  with 
smaller  ones  during  twenty-four  hours,  the  temperature  being  from  78°  to  about 
82°  F.  To  my  surprise,  the  clots,  which  were  in  some  instances  very  firm,  became 
in  all  more  or  less  altered  during  this  period  of  time.  The  blood  was  darker,  the 
structure  of  the  clots  softened  and  partially  or  entirely  dissolved. 

It  becomes  clear  from  these  results  that  the  mixture  of  venom  and  blood  does  not 
alter  the  vital  fluid  at  first  in  any  way  which  is  appreciable  to  our  senses.  The  blood 
drawn  into  venom  and  rapidly  mixed  with  it  in  any  proportion,  clots  as  firmly  as 
usual.  After  a  time,  however,  it  seems  that  a  catalytic  change  is  induced,  the  clot 
softens,  and  even  becomes  perfectly  redissolved  when  the  amount  of  mingled  venom 
has  been  large  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  high.  This  alteration  of  the  formed 
clot,  external  to  the  body,  finds  its  illustration  within  the  system  in  those  cases  of 


OF  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  91 

chronic  poisoning,  in  which  the  fibrin  of  the  blood,  subjected  to  long  contact  with 
venom,  finally  loses  its  power  to  coagulate.  When  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
in  summer  weather,  blood  is  protected  from  desiccation,  the  clot  not  unfrequently 
softens  after  a  few  days,  or  even  entirely  redissolves.  This  change,  however,  is 
produced  by  extensive  putrefactive  alterations  in  the  blood,  and  is  most  readily 
induced  in  the  blood  of  such  persons  as  are  anasmic,  or  still  more  rapidly  in  the 
blood  of  some  reptiles  and  fish.  The  condition  of  diflfluence  attained  within  twenty- 
four  hours,  under  the  influence  of  the  venom,  was  such  as  usually  requires,  in  pure 
blood,  several  days  of  warm  weather  to  effect.  It  is  proper  to  add  that  in  almost 
all  of  the  specimens  of  mingled  blood  and  venom  the  odor  made  it  evident  that 
putrefactive  changes  had  taken  place,  an  inference  which  was  further  justified  by 
the  evidence  which  they  soon  afforded  of  continued  progress  in  this  direction. 

Fontana's^  observations  on  the  subject  of  the  direct  action  of  venom  on  blood 
are  altogether  insufficient  and  unsatisfactory.  He  seems  to  have  been  of  opinion 
that  admixture  with  venom  darkened  the  blood,  and  prevented  coagulation. 
In  this  view  he  differed  from  Mead.  Dr.  Brainard,^  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  was  the 
first  to  state  that  when  the  animal  bitten  dies  soon,  the  blood  is  coagulable,  and 
that  when  death  is  delayed,  it  ceases  to  exhibit  this  condition. 

The  statements  of  Dr.  Brainard  in  regard  to  changes  efiected  in  the  blood-disks 
by  Crotalus,  or  rather  Crotalophorus  venom,  prepared  me  to  find  them  more  or  less 
altered  in  my  own  cases.  He  seems  to  have  held  an  opinion,  common  enough  at 
the  date  of  his  paper,^  namely,  that  woorara  owed  its  potency  to  a  serpent  venom, 
and  that  this  poison  as  well  as  true  venom  seriously  injured  the  blood-globules,  and 
produced  a  fatal  result  by  causing  their  arrest  in  the  capillaries.  Fontana,  who 
examined  the  blood  after  death  from  viper  bite,  and  who  studied  the  mixture  of 
blood  and  venom,  states  that  it  prevented  coagulation,  but  that  he  found  the 
globules  unaltered. 

The  general  result  of  my  own  experiments  on  this  subject  may  be  very  briefly 
summed  up.  I  have  made  very  many  careful  examinations  of  the  blood-disks  of 
frogs,  birds,  dogs,  etc.,  which  had  been  killed  by  snake  bites.  In  a  few  rare  cases 
of  prolonged  secondary  poisoning,  I  found  a  small  proportion  of  the  globules 
altered  and  indented  on  the  edge,  but  in  no  case  were  these  changes  very  remark- 
able. In  primary  or  acute  poisoning,  I  have  never  been  able  to  detect  the  least 
alteration  in  the  blood-cells.  It  should  be  needless  to  add  that  I  examined  the 
cells  taken  from  the  heart  and  from  capillaries,  and  that  these  observations  were 
made  so  soon  as  death  took  place. 

I  have  also  studied  the  effect  on  the  disks  of  mixing  the  venom  with  blood,  but 
even  in  these  circumstances  no  notable  change  took  place  in  the  blood-disks  within 
any  brief  period  of  time,  as  half  an  hour.  Whether  or  not  this  direct  contact 
would  affect  them  after  a  longer  time,  I  cannot  say,  and  it  is  a  question  which  is 
partially  open  for  further  study. 


*  Fontana,  vol.  i.  pp.  313  and  384.     Skinner's  Translation. 
"*  Brainard,  op.  cit. 

^  Essay  on  a  New  Method  of  Treating  Serpent  Bites,  etc.,  by  Daniel  Brainard,  M.  D.    Chicago,  1854, 
pp.  14,  and  plates. 


92  PHYSIOLOGY   AND    TOXICOLOGY 

Dr.  Burnett'  states  that  direct  union  of  venom  and  blood  causes  the  disks  to 
lose  their  tendency  to  arrange  themselves  in  rows.  This  observation,  also,  I  am 
unable  to  verify  entirely.  Where  the  blood  and  venom  were  mixed  in  equal  quan- 
tities, the  nummulation  of  the  disks  was  very  often  prevented,  but  the  poison  is  so 
glutinous  and  gum-like  that  its  mechanical  properties  may  be  very  well  supposed 
to  exert  some  effect  on  this  process,  and  certainly,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  the  presence 
of  venom  to  the  amount  of  a  tenth  or  twentieth  in  no  way  retarded,  much  less 
stopped,  the  union  of  the  globules  of  freshly-drawn  blood. 

One  other  observation  was  yet  to  be  made  to  complete  the  study  of  the  influence 
of  venom  upon  the  various  parts  of  the  blood.  It  was  clear  that  in  slow  venom 
poisoning  the  blood  plasma  became  profoundly  altered.  As  it  was  possible  that  the 
contents  of  the  blood-disks  might  also  undergo  a  like  degradation  without  of  neces- 
sity involving  changes  in  the  form  of  these  elements,  I  examined  the  blood  of 
several  guinea-pigs  to  determine  whether,  after  death  from  Crotalus  bite,  the  blood 
would  still  crystallize.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  blood  was  very  feebly  clotted,  in 
one  only  was  it  perfectly  fluid.  In  all  of  these,  specimens  of  blood  from  the  heart 
afforded  me,  after  the  usual  preparation,  beautiful  crystals,  nor  did  these  differ  in 
form,  size,  or  color,  from  the  characteristic  tetrahedrons  of  the  blood  of  this  animal. 

In  order  to  complete  my  study  of  the  blood,  I  desired  to  ascertain  the  rate  at 
which  the  fibrin  disappeared  from  the  vital  fluid. 

Experiment. — The  first  observation  on  this  point  was  made  upon  a  small  dog, 
weighing  about  ten  pounds.  A  tube  was  placed  in  the  left  carotid  artery,  that 
blood  might  be  drawn  from  time  to  time.  The  various  portions  of  blood  were 
received  in  glasses  of  like  shape,  which  were  labelled  and  set  aside. 

At  4.15  minutes  P.  M.,  a  drachm  of  blood  was  drawn  from  the  artery ;  it  coagu- 
lated perfectly  well  in  three  or  four  minutes. 

At  4.20,  at  4.24,  and  4.26,  the  dog  was  bitten  by  separate  snakes,  which  had 
been  frequently  used  within  four  days.  From  the  second  wound  ran  a  little  blood, 
which  collected  in  the  hollow  of  the  groin,  and  coagulated  feebly. 

At  4.37  about  half  an  ounce  of  blood  was  drawn.     At  4.36  the  dog  fell. 

At  4.46  I  removed  about  two  drachms  of  blood.  Like  that  removed  at  4.37,  it 
clotted  perfectly. 

At  4.55  respiration  ceased,  just  as  a  fourth  specimen  was  taken,  and  at  4.58  all 
motion  was  over.     The  specimen  last  collected  coagulated  rather  freely. 

The  wound  in  the  flank  was  at  once  laid  open,  and  about  two  drachms  of  fluid 
blood  collected  from  the  tissues,  which  were  soaked  down  to  the  bones.  The  heart 
blood,  being  drawn  into  a  seventh  glass,  was  still  found  to  be  coagulable,  but  the 
clot  which  formed  was  by  no  means  so  perfect  as  in  the  blood  first  drawn. 

At  the  close  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  temperature  being  about  78°  F.,  the  speci- 
mens one,  two,  and  three  were  unaltered,  and  had  no  unpleasant  odorj  number  four 
was  slightly  altered,  but  the  blood  from  the  heart  was  already  unpleasant  in  siaiell, 
and  that  from  the  wound  was  quite  putrid.  At  the  end  of  a  second  period  of 
twenty-four  hours,  these  changes  were  much  more  marked. 


*  Burnett,  op.  cit. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  93 

Experiment. — In  a  second  case,  the  dog,  which  was  large  and  vigorous,  survived 
the  bites  several  hours,  and  died  during  my  absence.  He  was  bitten  by  a  strong 
and  fresh  snake  at  5.15,  and  again  by  a  second  at  5.18.  At  5.57,  blood  drawn 
from  the  femoral  artery  was  red  and  perfectly  coagulable.  At  the  close  of  two 
hours,  the  blood  drawn  still  clotted  well.  At  this  time,  as  I  have  said,  I  ceased  to 
observe  him.  He  was  able  to  walk  when  I  left  him,  and  was  drinking  eagerly. 
I  do  not  suppose  that  he  could  have  died  before  five  or  six  hours  from  the  time  of 
the  bite.  Eighteen  hours  after,  I  returned  to  find  him  dead  and  rigid.  His  blood 
was  everywhere  dark  and  fluid. 

Experiment. — In  another  instance  during  the  spring  of  1859,  a  dog  was  accident- 
ally dropped  into  my  snake-box.  He  was  bitten  in  a  dozen  places  by  as  many 
snakes,  and  perished  in  about  eighteen  minutes.  His  blood  was  entirely  fluid,  and 
so  remained.  This  was  the  most  rapid  case  of  alteration  of  the  blood  with  which 
I  have  met. 

The  last  observation  of  this  series  was  one  of  great  interest,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  dog  survived  very  serious  visceral  lesions  and  lived  during  two  days  with 
his  blood  in  a  condition  of  complete  diffluence. 

Experiment. — ^^The  dog,  a  small  terrier  weighing  about  fifteen  pounds,  was  intended 
to  make  one  of  a  set  of  observations  on  the  value  of  Bibron's  antidote.  For  this 
purpose  he  was  placed  in  the  snake-box,  where  instantly  he  was  struck  twice  by  a 
large  snake,  both  wounds  being  double  fang  marks,  and  both  being  in  the  right 
flank.  On  removing  him  I  observed  that  from  one  of  the  wounds  blood  was  run- 
ning in  a  thin  stream.  After  it  had  run  for  some  time,  I  caught  a  few  drops  in  a 
watch-glass,  and  found  that  it  coagulated  well.  Before  I  thought  fit  to  use  the 
supposed  antidote,  I  was  called  away.  Returning  at  the  end  of  an  hour  I  found 
the  dog  standing  with  his  head  pendent,  having  just  vomited  glairy  mucus.  His 
pulse  was  quick  and  feeble,  his  respiration  occasionally  panting.  The  hemorrhage 
had  ceased.  Owing  to  an  accident  which  at  this  time  deprived  me  of  the  supply 
of  Bibron's  antidote,  which  I  had  prepared,  I  was  unable  to  make  further  use  of 
the  animal  in  the  manner  proposed,  and  not  desiring  to  lose  the  observation 
altogether,  I  utilized  the  opportunity  in  the  following  way: — 

One  hour  and  a  half  after  he  was  bitten  I  drew  a  drachm  of  blood  from  the 
jugular  vein.     It  clotted  perfectly. 

Four  and  a  half  hours  after  the  bite  a  drachm  of  blood  from  the  same  vein 
coagulated  equally  well. 

Twenty  hours  from  the  time  of  the  poisoning,  the  dog  was  found  lying  on  his 
left  side,  having  passed  slimy  and  bloody  stools  in  abundance.  At  intervals  he 
seemed  to  suffer  much  from  tenesmus,  but  was  so  weak  that  he  stood  up  with 
difiiculty.  His  gums  were  bleeding,  a  symptom  I  had  seen  before,  and  his  eyes 
were  deeply  injected.  At  this  time  about  two  or  three  drachms  of  blood  were 
drawn.     It  was  very  dark,  and  formed  within  five  minutes  a  clot  of  feeble  texture. 

Twenty-seven  hours  and  a  half  after  the  time  at  which  he  was  bitten,  the  dog 
was  weaker.  His  hind  legs  were  twitching,  and  the  dysentery  continued.  Three 
drachms  of  blood  were  drawn  as  usual,  but  no  clot  formed  in  this  specimen, 
although  it  was  set  aside  and  carefully  watched  for  some  time.     While  I  was  col- 


94  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

lecting  the  fluid  for  observation  the  dog  suddenly  discharged  per  anum  at  least 
four  ounces  of  dark,  grumous  blood.  At  this  time  I  supplied  the  dog  with  water,  and 
left  him.  Fifty-four  hours  after  the  bite  he  was  seen  again,  and  found  to  have 
drunk  freely  of  water,  and  to  have  passed  fewer  stools.  Up  to  this  date  he  declined 
all  food. 

From  this  time  he  improved  rapidly,  and  took  with  eagerness  whatever  nutri- 
ment was  offered.  On  the  fourth  day  his  blood  again  exhibited  a  clot,  although  it 
was  very  small  and  of  loose  texture.  I  made  no  further  examinations  of  the  blood. 
The  dog  lost  flesh  as  he  gained  strength,  and  had  profuse  suppuration  from  an 
abscess  in  the  bitten  flank.  At  the  close  of  two  weeks  he  was  active  and  well, 
except  that  the  wound  was  still  open. 

The  case  last  related  is  doubly  valuable,  as  pointing  out  even  in  a  single  instance 
the  time  at  which  the  blood  became  altered,  and  also  as  showing,  once  more,  how 
profound  may  be  this  change,  and  how  perfect  the  recovery. 

The  study  of  envenomed  blood  has  thus  far  taught  us — 1st.  That  in  animals 
which  survive  the  poisoning  for  a  time,  the  blood  is  so  altered  as  to  render  the 
fibrin  incoagulable. 

2d.  Experiments  in  and  out  of  the  body  have  given  proof  that  this  change  is 
gradual,  and  that  the  absence  of  coagulation  is  not  due  to  checked  formation  of 
fibrin,  but  to  alterations  produced  by  the  action  of  the  venom  in  that  fibrin  which 
already  exists  in  the  circulating  blood. 

3.  The  influence  thus  exerted  is  of  a  putrefactive  nature,  and  imitates  in  a  few 
hours  the  ordinary  results  of  days  of  change.  It  is  probably  even  more  rapid 
within  the  body,  on  account  of  the  higher  tempei-ature  of  the  economy. 

4th.  The  altered  blood  retains  its  power  to  absorb  gases,  and  thus  to  change  its 
own  color. 

5th.  The  blood-corpuscles  are  unaffected  in  acute  poisoning  by  Crotalus  venom,  and 
are  rarely  and  doubtfully  altered  in  the  most  prolonged  cases  which  result  fatally. 

6th.  The  contents  of  the  blood-globules  of  the  guinea-pig  can  be  made  to  crystal- 
lize as  is  usual  after  other  modes  of  death. 

Altered  Relation  between  the  Blood  and  Tissues. — Among  the  most  constant  and 
most  curious  lesions  in  the  cases  of  secondai'y  poisoning  are  the  ecchymoses  which 
are  found  on  and  in  the  viscera  of  the  chest  and  belly ;  most  frequently  afiecting 
the  intestinal  canal,  they  may  and  do  occur  in  any  cavity  and  on  any  organ.  These 
spots  contain  blood  whose  globules  are  more  or  less  deformed,  but  still  of  dimensions 
not  less  than  usual.  As  they  do  not  take  place  until  the  blood  is  considerably 
altered,  and  as  the  intra-vascular  blood-disks  undergo  no  apparent  change,  this 
leakage  of  the  blood  into  the  serous  cavities  and  areolar  interspaces  is  plainly  due 
to  the  loss  of  coagulating  power  in  the  blood,  or  to  alterations  in  the  vascular  tubes, 
or  perhaps  to  both.  Unfortunately,  we  can  but  revive  anew  the  unanswered 
question  as  to  the  possibility  of  the  escape  of  blood-disks  through  yet  unwounded 
vessels.  It  is  likely,  however,  that  the  tissues  share  in  the  incipient  putrefactive 
fermentation  which  characterizes  prolonged  cases  of  this  poisoning,  and  are  more 
or  less  weakened  thereby ;  so  that,  with  a  degraded  blood,  and,  of  a  consequence, 
with  an  embai'rassed  capillary  circulation,  aided  by  laboring  respiration,  we  can 


OF  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  95 

readily  conceive  how  capillary  ruptures  may  take  place,  and  so  give  rise  to  trans- 
udations of  blood  in  any  portion  of  the  body. 

I  have  grouped  together  all  the  visceral  lesions,  because  it  seemed  to  me  that, 
however  various  the  seat  of  the  affection,  it  was,  in  all  organs  and  throughout 
the  tissues,  alike  in  its  character.  In  other  words,  owing  to  the  changes  in  blood 
or  tissues,  or  both,  extravasations  are  met  with  in  the  lungs,  brain,  kidneys,  serous 
membranes,  intestines,  and  heart.  As  a  result,  we  may  have  functional  derange- 
ment grafted  on  the  main  stem  of  the  malady,  and  the  accompaniments  of  bloody 
serum  in  the  affected  cavities,  bloody  mucus  in  the  intestinal  canal,  and  bloody 
urine  in  the  bladder. 

Causation  of  Death  in  Acute  and  Chronic  Crotalus  Poisoning. — Perhaps  scarcely 
one  intelligent  medical  reader  will  have  followed  me  thus  far  without  arriving  at 
the  conclusion  that  the  venom  of  the  Crotalus,  like  that  of  other  snakes,  is  a  septic 
or  putrefacient  poison  of  astounding  energy.  This  very  obvious  view  has  long  been 
held  by  toxicologists,  and  the  cases  and  experiments  of  this  paper  assuredly  do  not 
weaken  it. 

The  rapid  decomposition  of  the  blood,  and  of  the  tissues .  locally  acted  upon  by 
the  venom,  leaves  no  doubt  upon  the  matter,  and  makes  it  apparent  that  an 
incipient  putrefaction  of  this  nature  may  so  affect  the  blood  as  to  destroy  its  power 
to  clot,  and,  perhaps,  also  to  nourish  the  tissues  through  which  it  is  urged. 

The  alterations  thus  brought  about  are  probably  the  results  of  a  continued  fermen- 
tative change,  which,  begun  by  a  small  amount  of  poison,  is  gradually  made  to 
involve  in  fatal  change  the  whole  mass  of  the  circulating  fluids.  Like  all  fermen- 
tations, however,  the  rapidity  depends  on  temperature  and  on  the  amount  of  the 
primary  ferment.  In  one  instance,  a  dog,  struck  by  eight  snakes,  died  in  eighteen 
minutes,  and  exhibited  an  uncoagulable  blood.  I  am  aware  of  no  other  case  of 
loss  of  coagulating  power  so  rapid.  It  was  rendered  thus  by  the  number  of  locali- 
ties from  which  the  ferment  attacked  the  system.  On  the  other  hand,  the  frog,  a 
small  animal,  receives  the  same  dose  of  venom  as  would  have  entered  the  tissues  of 
a  larger  animal,  yet  it  resists  the  poison  most  remarkably,  by  virtue  of  its  powers 
as  a  cold-blooded  creature,  existing  at  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  itself. 

Admitting,  then,  that  the  changes  effected  in  the  blood  may  be  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  fatal  results  in  chronic  cases  of  poisoning  by  Crotalus,  are  we  justi- 
fied in  referring  to  similar  causes  the  sudden  deaths  which  sometimes  take  place  in 
small,  or  even  larger  animals,  in  whose  tissues  or  fluids  we  can  detect  no  change 
whatsoever  ? 

In  the  present  state  of  this  inquiry,  the  question  scarcely  admits  of  a  positive 
answer.  It  is  clear  that  in  acute  cases,  the  symptoms  of  depression  are  most  marked, 
and  the  heart  and  nerve  centres  are  suddenly  and  fearfully  enfeebled,  so  that  their 
irritability  is  lessened,  and  is  finally  lost  earlier  than  occurs  in  other  forms  of  death. 
If  now,  we  knew  of  no  other  property  of  the  poison  than  this  one,  we  could  pro- 
perly pause  here,  and  regard  the  venom  as  having  a  specific  influence  on  the  heart, 
and  on  the  nervous  irritability  of  some  part  of  the  cerebro-spinal  centres,  such  as 
characterizes  certain  of  the  better  known  poisons,  such  as  corroval,  woorara,  upas, 
opium,  aconite,  etc.  Since,  however,  we  are  aware  that  serpent  venom,  after  remain- 
ing for  a  time  in  the  body,  has  a  specific  power  of  attacking  at  least  one  element  of 


96  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

the  blood,  and  thi-ough  its  degradation,  perhaps,  of  affecting  the  whole  circulating 
fluid,  we  are  naturally  inclined  to  ask  whether  this  power  may  not  also  be  invoked 
to  explain  even  the  ultimate  nature  of  the  sudden  cases  of  death  from  the  venom. 
If,  for  instance,  a  pigeon  is  struck  by  a  snake,  and  dies  in  thirty  seconds,  its  tissues 
normal  in  appearance  and  its  blood  unaltered,  have  we  any  logical  right  to  infer 
that  the  blood  may  have  been  inappreciably,  but  fatally,  altered,  so  as  to  be  unable 
to  sustain  the  life  of  the  tissues  which  it  feeds  ?  Is  it  this  possible,  but  impercept- 
ible, change  in  the  blood  which  acts  to  produce  those  losses  of  irritability  in  the 
nerve-centres  which  we  have  been  led  to  regard  as  the  proximate  cause  of  early 
and  rapid  death  ?  If  such  be  the  case,  then  the  suddenness  of  the  general  change  in 
the  blood  must  account  for  the  failure  of  hfe,  because  it  can  be  shown  that  animals 
whose  blood  is  considerably  altered  may  live  for  some  time,  or  even  survive  to 
renew  and  refibrinate  their  vital  fluids. 

The  cause  of  death  in  chronic  or  secondary  poisoning  may,  with  propriety,  then,  be 
referred  to  the  incipient  putrefactive  changes  which  affect  the  blood,  as  well  as  to 
the  continued  influence  of  the  agencies  which  first  act  to  depress  the  heart's  action, 
and  destroy  nerve  function. 

The  cause  of  death  in  the  acute  cases,  where  the  result  is  so  sudden  that  no  change 
is  perceptible  in  the  blood  in  the  vessels,  is  amply  explained  in  the  preceding  pages. 
But,  while  we  are  able  to  state  where  death  begins,  and  in  what  order  the  func- 
tions succumb,  we  are  still  far  from  knowing  why,  or  precisely  how,  this  or  that 
structure  is  affected.  The  proximate  causes  are  open  to  experimental  study,  the 
ultimate  reason,  as  we  have  seen  (page  95),  is  as  yet  unknown. 

Summing  up,  then,  what  we  have  learned  of  the  acute  form  of  poisoning,  we 
may  feel  justified  in  concluding,  1st.  That  the  heart  becomes  enfeebled  shortly  after 
the  bite.  This  is  due  to  direct  influence  of  the  venom  on  this  organ,  and  not  to 
the  precedent  loss  of  the  respiratory  function.  Notwithstanding  the  diminution  of 
cardiac  power,  the  heart  is  usually  in  motion  after  the  lungs  cease  to  act,  and  its 
tissues  remain  for  a  time  locally  irritable.  The  paralysis  of  the  heart  is,  therefore, 
not  so  complete  as  it  is  under  the  influence  of  upas  or  corroval. 

2d.  That  in  warm-blooded  animals,  artificial  respiration  lengthens  the  life  of  the 
heart,  but  does  not  sustain  it  so  long  as  when  the  animal  has  died  by  woorara,  or 
decapitation. 

od.  That  in  the  frog,  the  heart-acts  continue  after  respiration  has  ceased,  and 
sometimes  survive  until  the  sensory  nerves  and  the  nerve-centres  are  dead,  the  motor 
nerves  alone  remaining  irritable. 

4:th.  That  in  warm-blooded  animals  respiration  ceases,  owing  to  paralysis  of  the 
nerve-centres. 

5th.  That  the  sensory  nerves,  and  the  centres  of  nerve  power  in  the  medulla 
spinalis  and  medulla  oblongata,  lose  their  vitality  before  the  efferent  or  motor  nerves 
become  affected. 

6th.  That  the  muscular  system  retains  its  irritability  in  the  cold-blooded  animals, 
acutely  poisoned,  for  a  considerable  time  after  death. 

7th.  That  the  first  effect  of  the  venom  being  to  depress  the  vital  energy  of  the 
heart  and  nerve-centres,  a  resort  to  stimulants  is  clearly  indicated,  as  the  only 
rational  mode  of  early  constitutional  treatment. 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  97 

Analogy  hetween  the  Symptoms  of  Grotalus  Poisoning  and  iliose  of  Certain  Diseases. 
— I  am  unwilling  to  leave  this  unsatisfactory,  but  necessary  part  of  my  task,  with- 
out calling  attention  to  the  singular  likeness  between  the  symptoms  and  lesions  of 
Crotalus  poisoning,  and  those  of  certain  maladies,  such  as  yellow  fever.^  If  for  a 
moment  we  lose  sight  of  the  local  injection,  and  regard  only  the  symptoms  which 
follow,  and  the  tissue  changes  which  ensue,  the  resemblance  becomes  still  more 
striking. 

In  both  diseases,  for  such  they  are,  we  have  a  class  of  cases  in  which  death  seems 
to  occur  suddenly  and  inexplicably,  as  though  caused  by  an  overwhelming  dose  of 
the  poison.  In  both  diseases,  these  cases  are  marked  by  symptoms  of  profound 
prostration,  and  in  both  the  post-mortem  revelations  fail  to  explain  the  death.  I 
have  spoken,  as  an  example,  of  yellow  fever,  but  similar  instances  are  not  wanting 
in  cholera,  typhoid,  and  typhus  fevers,  and  in  scarlatina. 

A  second  class  of  cases,  both  of  Crotalus  poisoning  and  of  yellow  fever,  survive 
the  first  shock  of  the  malady,  and  then  begin  to  exhibit  the  train  of  symptoms  which 
terminates  in  more  or  less  complete  degradation  of  the  character  of  the  blood.  Vary- 
ing remai'kably  among  themselves,  exhibiting,  as  it  were,  preferences  for  this  or  that 
organ,  all  of  these  maladies  agree  in  the  destruction  of  the  fibrin  of  the  blood  which 
their  fatal  cases  frequently  exhibit.  In  yellow  fever,  the  likeness  to  venom  poison- 
ing is  most  distinctly  preserved,  as  we  trace  the  symptoms  of  both  diseases  to  the 
point  where  the  diffluent  blood  leaks  out  into  the  mucous  and  serous  cavities.  The 
yellowness  which  characterizes  many  yellow  fever  cases,  I  do  not  find  described 
as  a  current  symptom  of  the  venom  malady,  but  it  is  often  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  accompaniments  of  the  period  of  recovery  from  the  bite.^  It  is,  indeed, 
most  .probable,  that  if  ^ small  and  repeated  doses  of  venom  were  introduced  at 
intervals  into  the  body  of  an  animal,  a  disease  might  be  produced  even  more 
nearly  resembling  the  malady  in  question.  In  the  parallel  thus  drawn,  I  have 
given  but  the  broad  outlines  of  resemblance,  nor  was  it  to  be  expected  that  the 
minor  details  would  be  alike.  From  a  general  and  philosophic  point  of  view,  this 
similarity  is  sufficiently  striking  to  make  me  hope  that  the  complete  control  of  one 
such  septic  poison  foi"  experimental  use,  may  enable  us  in  future  to  throw  new  light 
on  those  septic  poisons  of  disease  whose  composition  we  know  nothing  of,  and  whose 
very  means  of  entering  the  body  they  destroy,  is,  as  yet,  a  mystery. 


*  This  analogy  has  been  noted  by  S.  L.  Mitchill,  by  Magendie,  and  by  Gaspard,  who  has  also  called 
attention  to  the  resemblance  between  ordinary  putrefactive  poisoning,  such  as  arises  from  injection  into 
the  blood  of  decayed  animal  substances,  and  the  poisoning  by  venom.  Neither  in  this,  or  in  any  other 
cases  of  the  kind,  is  the  likeness  perfect;  and  while,  to  use  a  naturalist's  phrase,  we  recognize  these 
septic  maladies  as  of  one  genus,  we  cannot  regard  them  as  so  nearly  allied  as  to  be  mere  varieties  of 
one  species.  Yellow  fever  and  putrefactive  poisoning  both  begin,  in  the  mass  of  cases,  with  a  fever, 
which  is  absent  in  the  first  stages  of  venom  poisoning  ;  and  there  are  other  and  wide  differences  which  it 
is  needtess  to  enumerate  here.  See  Gaspard,  Journal  de  Physiologic,  tome  iv.  p.  2  et  seq.,  and  tome  iii. 
pp.  81-85  of  same  Journal.     See  also  La  Roche  on  Yellow  Fever,  vol.  ii.  p.  597. 

=  Jaundice,   occasionally  observed  in  France  as  an  early  symptom  of  viper  bite,  has  been  usually 
regarded  as  the  jaundice  of  fear,  a  cause  which  certainly  cannot  be  invoked  to  account  for  the  icterus 
seen  in  late  stages  of  the  malady  caused  by  the  venom. 
13 


98  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

CROTALTJS   POISONING   IN  MAN. 

The  cases  of  Rattlesnake  poisoning  in  man  have  been  separated  from  the  rest 
of  this  paper,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  grouping  the  phenomena  of  human  poison- 
ing with  those  observed  in  animals.  This  diflBculty  arose  from  the  imperfect 
reports  of  such  cases  as  have  been  recorded,  and  from  the  fact  that,  in  man,  the 
symptoms  were  possibly  modified,  in  some  instances,  by  the  remedies  used,  and 
were  thus  no  longer  comparable  with  such  as  had  been  seen  to  exist  in  animals 
submitted  to  no  modifying  treatment.  Some  of  these  objections  would,  of  course, 
disappear  in  a  collection  of  cases  so  large  as  to  enable  us  distinctly  to  separate  the 
essential  from  the  induced,  or  accidental  features  of  the  malady.  Unfortunately, 
although  I  have  collected  at  least  fifty  cases  of  Crotalus  bite,  the  most  of  these 
scarcely  deserve  the  name  of  medical  reports,  and  among  the  whole  number  I  have 
been  able  to  select  but  sixteen  which  were  sufficiently  rich  in  details,  to  be  of  the 
slightest  value.  The  numerous  gaps  in  the  accompanying  table,  show  but  too  well 
the  want  of  full  medical  statements  of  the  order  and  character  of  the  symptoms, 
even  in  these  select  cases,  and  it  is  humiliating  to  observe  that,  of  the  four  post- 
mortem examinations  of  the  lesions  in  this  mode  of  poisoning,  but  two  were  made 
in  this  country. 

If,  then,  in  the  table  of  symptoms  in  man,  and  in  the  following  remarks  upon 
them,  such  a  lack  of  detail  is  met  with  as  would  disgrace  the  most  ordinary  report 
of  "  an  interesting  case,"  the  blame  must  rest  where  it  belongs,  with  the  physicians 
of  our  own  country,  who  have  failed  thus  much  in  their  duty  as  medical 
observers. 

It  is  impossible  to  review  the  whole  field  of  observation  upon  this  important  sub- 
ject, without  arriving  at  the  conclusion  that  whatever  may  be  the  degree  of  viru- 
lence in  the  poison  of  different  venomous  snakes,  its  mode  of  affecting  the  system 
varies  but  little,  whether  the  bite  be  inflicted  by  the  Viper,  the  Copperhead,  the 
Rattlesnake,  or  the  dreaded,  but  not  more  deadly.  Cobra.  Thus,  in  each  case,  we 
have  the  local  poisoning,  the  constitutional  malady,  and  the  possibility  of  inexpli- 
cably rapid  death  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  a  strange  zymotic  disease  upon  the  other. 
There  may  yet  remain  some  room  for  doubt  as  to  whether  the  apparent  difference 
in  the  activity  of  the  venom  from  various  serpents  is  not  due  to  the  quantities 
formed  or  stored  up  in  each  case,  and  to  unobserved  peculiarities  in  the  structure 
and  form  of  the  poison  apparatus.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
two  cases  of  rattlesnake  poisoning  may  sometimes  differ  as  much  as  either  one  of 
them  will,  from  a  case  of  Moccasin  or  Cobra  bite.     This  fact  should  make  us  cau- 


OF  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  99 

tious  in  asserting  distinctions  between  the  mode  of  action  of  the  venoms  of  the 
several  poisonous  serpents  upon  evidence  of  any  limited  number  of  fects. 

With  these  brief  preliminary  remarks,  we  shall  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the 
symptoms  of  Crotalus  bite  in  man.  In  this  review,  I  shall  make  use  not  only  of 
the  cases  in  the  accompanying  table,  but  also  of  the  many  brief  notices  of  cases 
which  were  found  unfit  for  tabular  analysis.  All  that  I  have  to  say  at  present 
with  regard  to  antidotes  and  treatment,  will  be  found  at  the  close. 


TABLE     OF     CROTALUS 


No. 

Reporter. 

Sex. 

Seat  of  wounds. 

Early  local 

Later  local 

Immediate  or  early 

Respiration  and 

General  later 

(.  e,  fang  marks. 

symptoms. 

symptoms. 

constitutional 
symptoms. 

circulation. 

symx>toms. 
Nervous  system. 

1 

Moore 

Male 

Instep  twice 
bitten 

Pain,  swelling, 
hemorrhage 
from  bites 

Continued  pain,  and 
swelling  to  the  knee 

None  stated 

None  stated 

Probably  none  of 
moment 

2 

W.  Mayrant 

Male 

Throat 

Swelling  and 
pain 

Caustics  used.  Small 
slough 

Sudden  and  exces- 
sive prostration ; 
vomiting;  locked- 
jaw;  loss  of  speech 

Feeble     fluttering 
pulse 

• 

3 

W.  Mayrant 

Male 

Pain 

Violent     vomiting 
and  prostration 

4 

W.  E.  Horner 

Male 

Bend  of  elbow, 

There  seems  to 

Itching,  pain  great. 

Apparently  none 

Feeble  pulse,  res- 

Convulsion;   mind 

two  fang  marks 

have  been  none 

felt  (see  re- 
marks) except 
itching 

swelling 

piration  easy 

generally  clear  up 
to  death 

5 

H.  B.  Phillips 

Female 

Struck  twice 
on  foot 

Inguinal   glands   en- 
larged ;    great  pain 
and  swelling ;  mot- 
tled skin 

Vomiting,  depres- 
sion, and  thirst 

Feeble,  pulse  60; 
great  gen'l  swell- 
ing; great  thirst; 
loss    of    speech ; 
tongue  swollen 

Mind  clear 

6 

Post 

Male 

Last  phalanx 

of  middle 

finger 

Small  jet  of 
blood  from 
wound;  swell- 
ing 

Continued     swelling 
up  to  pectoral  mus- 
cles,    followed    by 
great  discoloration 

Pulse  2J-  hours  af- 
ter bite   80,   not 
weak;   after  this 
it  became  faster, 
to  120,  and  more 

Excited  manner 

and  more  feeble 

7 

J.  Trowbridge 

Male,  set. 

Foot  near 

Swelling  and 

Leg  swollen    to   the 

Probably  none  of 

Pulse  rapid  2  J  hrs. 

12  years 

small  toe 

pain 

groin;     great    paint  the  usual   symp- 

after  bite 

and  discoloration 

toms,  none  stated 

8 

Withmire 

Male 
(boy) 

Ankle 

Pain  and 
swelling 

Continued   pain  and 
swelling 

9 

Hammond 

Male 

Finger 

Pain  and 

swelling 

Pain  and  swellingdis- 
appeared  after  use 
of  antidote,  and  re- 
turned in  40  minutes 

10 

Hammond 

Female 

Finger 

Pain,  swelling, 

Pain,   swelling,   etc..  Depression    and 

Case  too  short  for 

(Coolidge) 

cet.  15 
years 

and  discolora- 
tion 

to  the  elbow 

nausea 

the  later  constitu- 
tioual  symptoms 
to  develop 

11 

John  Louis 
Xantus. 
(de  V(Ssey.) 

Boy 

Leg 

Pain,  swelling 

Increasing  pain  and 
swelling 

Prostration 

Great  prostration 

12 

Home 

Male 

Thumb  and  fin- 

No immediate 

Swelling,     pain    ex- 

Incoherence possi- 

Pulse feeble, 

The  mind  confused 

(the  re- 

ger twice  bit- 

swelling 

tending  rapidly  up 

bly  due  to  drunk- 

throughout100  to 

at   first,   became 

porter) 

ten,  four  fang 
wounds 

the  arm,  which  grew 
cold   and    sloughed 
before  death 

enness  and  alarm 

138 

clear;  depression, 
nausea,  faint  feel- 
ings; vomiting  on 
the  second  day 

13 

Woodhouse 

Male 

Finger 

Pain,  shock, 
and  nausea 

Pain,     swelling     of 
hand  and  arm,  and 
axillary  glands,  to- 
sications    over   the 
lymphatics  on  third 
day 

Nausea 

14 

Harlan 

Male 

Metacarpal 

Bleeding  from 

Extensive      swelling 

Repeated  and  sud-  Feeble  pulse;  difii- 

Delirium,  restless- 

joint of  finger, 

the  punctures; 

and  pain 

den  fainting  and 

cult   respiration; 

ness,  anxiety,  in- 

two fang 

swelling,  disco- 

pallor 

hiccough 

somnia,  incessant 

wounds 

loration 

thirst 

15 

Atchison 

Female 

Instep,  two 

Slight  swelling 

Intense   pain   shoot- 

2J hours  after  the  Feeble  pulse  until 

Delusions,   etc., 

a3t.  12 

fang  punctures 

and  discolora- 

ing up  the  leg 

bite  almost  mori- 

the stimulus  acted 

passed  away  un- 

years 

tion 

bund;  pulse  feeble 
and  wavy;  surface 
cold  and  perspir- 
ing; face  swollen; 
mind  wandering; 
pupils       dilated; 
subject  to  sensory 
delusions 

der  the  use  of  the 
stimulus 

16 

Pihorel 

Male, 

Twice  bitten  on 

Swelling  and 

No  increase   of   the 

Within  10  minutes 

The  physician  removed  the  ligature 

adult 

the  palm  and 

discoloration  at 

primary  swelling  af- 

pallor, cold  sweats, 

in  consequence  of  the  swelling,  etc., 

between  the 

least  partially 

ter  removal  of  the 

anxious      expres- 

when— 

thumb  and  fore- 

due to  the  liga- 

ligature 

sion,  general  de- 

The pulse  becameiThe   limbs   insen- 

finger  on  the 

ture,  which  was 

pression 

feeble    (50)    but 

sible,      repeated 

back  of  the 

applied  3  or  4 

rose  to  110  before 

syncope,     pupils 

thumb,  the  last 

minutes  after 

death;  noisy  res- 

contracted, mind 

wound  was 

the  bites 

piration 

clear 

single 

At  the  seventh  hour  there  was  a  swell- 
ing of  the  lip  ;  no  general  tumefac- 
tion ;   great   anxiety ;    painful   and 

difficult  deglutiti 

on  and  respiration. 

POISONING    IN    MAN. 


No. 

Secretions  and 

State  of 

Result  of 

Duration  of 

Mode 

Local  and  gene- 

Local 

General 

Remarks. 

discharges. 

skin  and 
tempera- 
ture. 

disease. 

disease. 

of 
death. 

ral  consequences 
if  recovery 
occurred. 

treatment. 

treatment. 

1 

Cure 

At  work  in  3  days 

Limited  local 
suppuration 

Ammonia,   liga- 
ture 

Ammonia 

Mild  case;  alludes 
to  14  cases  of 
snake  bite  suc- 
cessfully treated 
with  ammonia. 

2 

Cure 

Within  24  hours 

Small  local 
slough 

Caustic 

Alcohol    and    red 
pepper;  2  quarts 
of   whisky   given 
in  one  night,  and 
renewed    as    the 
pulse  fell 

Severe  case. 

3 

Cure 

In  12  hours 

Whisky  one  quart 
in  10  or  12  hours 

4 

Dark  bilious 

Extremities 

Death 

In  about  18  hours, 

Cups,    scarifica- 

Ammonia,       olive 

In    this    case  the 

stool,  vomiting 

cold 

without     convul- 
sions 

tion,  etc. 

oil,  no  persistent 
treatment 

man  was  some- 
what intoxicated 
when  bitten. 

5 

Constant  vomit- 
ing, lots  of 
speech 

Cure 

Much  better  in  30 
hours,   well  iu  3 
weeks 

Scarifications, 
blisters 

Carb.  ammonia  and 
arsenic 

Severe  case. 

6 

None  mentioned 

Death 

5}  hours,  coma 

Suction    follow- 
ing on    incom- 
plete    excision 
within  half  an 
hour,  ligature 

Carb.  ammonia  and 
brandy  in  as  large 
doses  as  the  pa- 
tient could  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  take 

7 

Cure 

Frictions,     with 
olive  oil 

gij     of    olive    oil 
given   every  half 
hour 

Relates  8  other 
cases  of  cure  by 
olive  oil,  all  in- 
completely told. 

8 

Nausea  and 
vomiting 

Recovery 

24  hours 

Repeated  appli- 
cations of  tinct. 
iodine 

None 

9 

Recovery 

1  hour 

None 

Bibron's  antidote, 
given  twice  (dose 

gtt.  X) 

No  general  symp- 
toms occurred. 

10 

Recovery 

Relief  in  1  hour 

Suppuration   on 
back   of  hand, 
perhaps     from 
local  treatment 

Suction,ligature, 
free    incisions, 
iodine       injec- 
tions 

Bibron's  antidote, 
given  twice  (dose 

gtt.   X) 

Expressed  distinct 
relief  from  the  use 
of  the  bromine. 

11 

Recovery 

Within  48  hours 

Bibron's   antidote, 
given  twice  (dose 

gtt.   X) 

Effects  of  2  doses 
of  bromine  said 
to  be  immediate 
and  well  marked. 

12 

Vomiting  on  2d 

Constant 

Death 

Seventeenth  day 

Asthe- 

Ammonia 

Chiefly  by  ammo- 

A severe  case,  well 

day,  diarrhoea 

coldness  of 

nia 

nia  and  alcoholic 

reported 

11th  day,  and 

extremities 

from 

stimuli,  with  such 

continuously 

typhus 

other  remedies  as 

until  death 

state 

the  symptoms  de- 
manded 

13 

Nausea  and  vo- 

Recovery 

Gradual,    the    ge- 

Slough,  exfolia- 

Incision, suction, 

Took  in  a  few  hours 

miting  on  move- 

neral    symptoms 

tion  of  last  pha- 

ligature,     am- 

one quart  of  4th 

ment  during  five 

passed  off  on  the 

lanx,    anchylo- 

monia 

proof  brandy  and 

days 

fifth  day,  the  lo- 
cal results   were 
persistent  during 
some  months 

sis  of  first  joint 
of  finger 

a  ^  pint  of  whis- 
ky ;    intoxication 
ensued  but  lasted 
only  four  hours 

14 

Continual  nau- 
sea &  vomiting, 
pain  &  stricture 

at  epigastrium 

Recovery 

Left  his  bed  in  a 
week,  depression 
passed  off  on  the 
2d  day 

Suppuration 

Ligatures,    free 
excision,      am- 
monia, repeat- 
ed washing 

Camphor,     ammo- 
nia,   opium,    and 
treatment  by 
symptoms 

Severe  case. 

15 

Vomiting  of  bile 

Cold  and 

Recovery 

Speedy  relief  from 

Remarkable  and 

Scarification, 

Free  use  of  stimu- 

took place  after 

perspiring 

use    of  stimulus, 

entire       relief 

cups,  local   sa- 

lants, 80  gi-ains  of 

a  dose  of  carb. 

and   sudden    and 

from    hooping- 

line  bath,  seda- 

carb.     ammonia, 

ammonia,  but 

complete        cure 

cough,      under 

tive     fomenta- 

and three  pints  of 

did  not  recur 

within  24  hours 

which   the  pa- 
tient had   suf- 
fered 

tions 

brandy  in  a  few 
hours,       without 
causing  intoxica- 
tion 

16 

Involuntary  uri- 

Cold and 

Death 

9  hours,  some  relief 

Ligature  in  3  to  4 

Half  ounce  of  olive 

nary  and  fecal 

moist 

followed   the    se- 

minutes, actual 

oil,     a     sedative 

evacuations,  vo- 

vere      symptoms 

cautery  within 

enema,  and  leech- 

miting one  houi 

caused  by  remov-; 

18   minutes  of 

es  to  the  throat, 

after  bite 

ing  the  ligature,  | 

the  bites 

seem  to  have  been 

butduringtheSth 

the  whole    treat- 

hour respiration  and  deglu- 

ment 

tition  more  and  more  diffi- 

cult,  pulse   imperceptible. 

and    death    ensued    appa- 

rently from    syncope;    the 

mind  cle 

ar  to  the  close 

102  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

Sex. — It  is  needless  to  state  that  men  are  the  most  frequent  subjects  of  Crotalus 
bite,  owing  to  the  nature  of  their  occupations,  which  necessarily  bring  them  within 
reach  of  the  reptile.  Children  and  women  are  sometimes  bitten,  and,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  table,  even  young  children  may.  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  acci- 
dent. It  is  not  possible  or  right  to  infer  from  this,  that  young  or  weakly  persons 
suffer  no  more  than  the  strong  or  fully  grown,  because  we  do  not  know  how  much 
venom  may  have  been  inserted  in  each  case.  Thus,  a  child  struck  by  an  exhausted 
snake  would  have  a  far  better  chance  of  escape  than  a  vigorous  man  bitten  by  a 
serpent  which  had  been  caged  for  months.  This  element  is,  of  course,  deficient  in 
calculations  upon  the  prognosis  of  our  ordinary  maladies,  such  as  typhoid  fever  and 
others,  since  in  them  the  severity  of  the  resultant  symptoms  alone  informs  us  as  to 
the  probable  amount  of  poison  received  by  the  system.  In  the  present  instance, 
it  is  an  important,  and  usually  an  attainable  factor,  in  estimating  the  probabilities 
of  any  given  case,  which  it  never  can  be  in  those  modes  of  septic  poisoning  which 
we  call  diseases,  and  know  only  through  their  symptoms. 

The  Situation  of  the  Wound. — In  almost  every  reported  case,  the  wound  has  been 
upon  an  extremity.  A  woodman  steps  over  a  log  which  conceals  a  snake;  a  child 
thrusts  an  arm  into  the  hollow  trunk,  where  a  serpent  lies;  or,  an  intoxicated  man, 
ignorant  and  reckless,  puts  his  hand  into  a  snake  cage,  or  handles  a  snake  which  is 
benumbed  with  cold,  and  to  appearance  harmless.  Another  not  uncommon  cause 
of  bite,  is  due  to  want  of  caution  in  dealing  with  serpents  which  have  been 
wounded,  or  even  decapitated.  One  of  the  best  of  the  reported  cases,  that  of  Dr. 
Woodhouse,  was  thus  produced. 

Local  Symi^toms. — The  pain  of  the  wound  made  by  the  snake  is  usually  the  earliest 
symptom,  but  it  is  by  no  means  a  constant  phenomenon  in  either  men  or  animals. 
Thus,  while  one  reporter  speaks  of  the  sudden  and  intense  pain,  another  does  not 
mention  it  at  all,  or  expressly  states  that  the  wound  was  at  first  disi'egarded.  In 
most  instances,  the  bite  is  certainly  painful,  and  when  we  consider  the  hooked  form 
of  the  fangs,  the  double  wound,  the  injection  of  a  foreign  fluid,  and  the  final  forci- 
ble withdrawal  of  the  teeth,  we  can  feel  no  surprise  that,  in  most  cases,  pain  is 
felt,  and  may  wonder  that  it  is  not  felt  in  all.  Certainly  we  need  not  look  to  the 
specific  nature  of  the  venom,  to  explain  the  primary  pain  here  described. 

The  succeeding  local  symptoms  are  almost  inevitably  swelling,  discoloration,  and 
increasing  pain.  The  reader  who  has  followed  this  Essay  thus  far,  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  explaining  at  least  two  of  these  symptoms.  The  swelling  is  due,  not 
to  inflammation,  but  to  a  large  or  small  collection  of  effused  blood  about  the  wound. 

In  some  loose  tissues  the  amount  thus  accumulated  may  be  very  great,  but  in 
other  cases  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  part  wounded  may  limit  the  early 
extravasation  of  blood,  by  confining  it  under  a  fascia,  of  which  I  have  seen  repeated 
examples  in  animals.     The  discoloration  is  to  be  explained  in  the  same  manner. 

Hemorrhage  from  the  wound  may  limit,  for  a  time,  the  last  two  symptoms.  It 
is,  however,  a  rare  occurrence,  and  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  external  opening 
of  the  wound  inflicted  by  the  fang,  and  perhaps,  also,  upon  the  character  of  the 
vessels  accidentally  encountered  by  the  fang.  In  one  of  the  dogs  whose  medical 
history  is  recorded  in  this  Essay,  the  hemorrhage  from  the  fang  wounds  amounted 
to  several  ounces. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  103 

In  estimating  these  early  local  evidences  of  poisoning  in  man,  .as  well  as  the  local 
signs  which  follow,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  in  almost  every  instance  the  ligature 
was  applied  at  once,  and  very  tightly.  In  animals  bitten  and  not  subjected  to  the 
ligature  the  swelling  occurs,  it  is  true,  but  forms  much  more  slowly  than  is  usual 
in  the  cases  of  men. 

The  primary  local  symptoms  thus  described  increase  progressively,  so  that  within 
a  period  which  varies  extremely,  the  swelling  and  discoloration  extend  up  the 
bitten  limb,  accompanied  on  their  march  by  pain  of  the  most  excruciating  character. 
At  this  time,  and  after  the  first  few  minutes,  the  increase  in  the  local  symptoms  is 
probably  due  to  the  influence  of  the  septic  poisoning  upon  the  tissues  near  the 
wound,  to  the  irritation  thus  resulting,  and  to  the  direct  and  indirect  effect  of  the 
venom  upon  the  local  circulation.  Thus  the  extremity  becomes  larger  and  more  and 
more  discolored  until  the  skin  offers  every  tint  of  an  old. bruise.  Vesications  appear 
on  the  surface,  the  pain  lessens,  the  local  temperature  early  diminished,  falls  still 
lower,  and  unless  the  poison  has  ceased  to  act,  or  a  potent  remedy  has  interfered, 
gangrene  ensues,  and  the  system,  already  weakened  by  the  effect  of  the  poison  upon 
its  own  tissues,  dies  in  the  effort  to  separate  the  mortified  and  corrupted  part. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  poison  is  not  present  in  a  dose  so  large  as  to  insure 
these  fatal  effects,  or  is  properly  antagonized  by  medical  agents,  the  sioelling  declines, 
and  the  pain  disappears,  with  a  celerity  which  every  practitioner  or  o-eporter  has 
assumed  to  he  evidence  of  Ids  own  skill,  or  of  the  utility  of  his  therapeutic  means,  hut 
which,  as  we  shall  have  reason  to  see,  is  in  reality,  an  essential  and  most  striking 
feature  of  the  Grotalus  malady,  and  is  either  attributable  to  none  of  the  remedies 
employed,  or  to  every  one  of  the  scores  of  them  which  popular  credulity  has  placed 
like  blunt  weapons  in  the  too  yielding  hand  of  the  physician. 

It  is  rather  remarkable,  that  only  one  reporter.  Dr.  Woodhouse,  has  alluded  to 
the  occurrence  of  swelling  in  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the  part  bitten.  His  case 
was  in  other  respects  somewhat  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the  lymphatic  trunks  also 
appear  to  have  been  inflamed,  which  is  not  a  common  symptom  of  Crotalus  bite. 
The  venom  usually  seems  to  enter  the  system  through  the  bloodvessels  alone,  and 
to  sap  the  life  of  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  without  of  necessity 
involving  the  lymph  vessels  or  their  glands. 

Local  Residts. — It  is  not  very  easy  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  the  local  conse- 
quences in  the  cases  which  finally  recover.  This  difficulty  will  be  explained  uj)on 
glancing  over  the  column  of  local  treatment  in  the  table,  when  it  will  be  observed 
that  ligatures,  the  cautery,  excision  and  incision,  alone  or  combined,  were  resorted 
to  with  a  freedom  dictated  by  therapeutic  despair  or  the  fears  of  the  sufferer  and 
his  friends. 

It  is  hence  impossible  to  learn  positively  how  much  was  due  to  remedies,  how 
much  to  disease.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  certain  that  in  many  cases  slight  or 
extensive  local  suppurations  follow  the  cure,  that  in  others  local  gangrene  and 
sphacelus  of  flesh  and  bone  occur,  while  in  the  graver  cases,  the  economy  is  too 
seriously  deranged  to  enjoy  the  power  of  spontaneously  amputating  the  mass  of  a 
limb.  The  well-known  case  reported  by  Sir  E.  Home  {See  Table  of  Crotalus  Poison- 
ing in  Man,  Case  12),  approached  most  nearly  to  the  condition  last  described.     In 


104  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   TOXICOLOGY 

this  instance  the  poison  produced  greai  local  swelling.  When  the  system  began  to 
recover  from  the  primary  depressing  effects  of  the  venom,  it  found  the  bitten  arm 
for  the  most  part  dead.  Intense  inflammation  ensued  as  the  patient  rallied,  but 
being  unequal  to  the  effort  of  repair,  he  died  before  it  was  accomplished. 

In  connection  with  the  local  signs,  it  is  as  well  to  note  that  no  reporter  has  de- 
scribed in  man  the  local  twitching  which  is  so  common  in  dogs  and  other  animals. 

The  constitutional  symi^toms  of  Crotalus  poisoning  sometimes  declare  themselves 
very  early,  and  if  we  can  believe  their  reporters,  almost  immediately  after  the  bite. 
It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  an  interval  of  several  minutes  elapses,  or  that 
the  faintness  of  terror  and  pain  has  been  mistaken  for  the  constitutional  effects  of 
the  venom.  In  a  few  instances  these  symptoms  do  not  announce  themselves  for 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  but  aside  from  these  exceptional  cases,  it  seems  evident 
that  the  general  manifestations  of  the  influence  of  the  venom  on  the  system  appear 
with  a  rapidity  which  is  sufficiently  surprising,  so  that  the  local  symptoms  are 
sometimes  overshadowed  and  forgotten  for  a  time,  in  the  singular  phenomena  which 
characterize  the  systemic  disturbance. 

The  principal  constitutional  effect  of  the  venom  is  a  general  prostration  of  the 
most  appalling  character.  Sometimes  within  a  few  minutes,  sometimes  within  one 
or  two  hours,  this  condition  of  profound  sedation  attains  its  height.  The  snake 
strikes  and  the  faintness  comes  on  while  the  person  injured  is  endeavoring  to  kill 
the  reptile.  Or,  as  in  another  instance,  he  walks  for  some  time  and  suddenly  finds 
his  limbs  giving  way  beneath  him. 

I  have  looked  in  vain  through  the  reports  for  any  evidence  of  a  primary  stimu- 
lating power  on  the  part  of  the  poison,  but  neither  in  the  published  cases,  or  in 
my  own  observations,  have  I  met  with  any  early  symptoms  of  excitement  which 
might  not  with  reason  be  attributed  to  terror  and  pain. 

The  condition  of  prostration  referred  to,  is  accompanied  by  a  variety  of  pheno- 
mena which  are  in  general  such  as  accompany  the  action  of  any  sudden  and  violent 
depressing  agency.  The  patient  staggers  or  falls,  cold  sweats  bathe  the  surface, 
nausea  and  vomiting  ensue,  the  pulse  becomes  quick,  and  rapid,  and  feeble,  the 
expression  anxious,  and,  in  a  few  cases,  the  mind  slightly  disturbed. 

A  patient  dying  in  this  condition  would  probably  exhibit  no  lesion  of  fluid  or 
solid,  and  would  be  an  example  of  acute  or  primary  poisoning,  such  as  sometimes 
occurs  in  the  early  stage  of  epidemics  of  cholera  or  yellow  fever.  So  great,  however, 
is  the  power  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  man,  owing,  perhaps,  in  some  degree  to  his 
bulk,  that  very  early  death  seems  to  be  a  rare  incident  of  venom  poisoning,  so 
rare,  indeed,  that  I  have  met  with  no  reported  example  of  its  occurrence. 

If  death  does  not  intervene,  the  local  symptoms  soon  begin  to  play  a  more  import- 
ant role,  and  the  swelling  and  discoloration  extend  up  the  limb,  and  pass  on  to  the 
trunk,  so  that  when  the  arm  has  been  wounded,  half  of  the  chest  and  back  have 
been  seen  to  be  discolored,  as  thoxigh  severely  bruised. 

Meanwhile,  the  signs  of  general  blood-poisoning  develop  themselves,  and  within 
a  few  hours,  or  a  day,  the  face  and  other  parts  become  swollen  and  puffy.  At  the 
same  time,  the  general  weakness  remains  well  marked,  as  shown  by  repeated  syn- 
cope, the  heart  quick,  feeble,  and  fluttering,  and  the  respiration  labored. 


OP  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  105 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  slight  mental  disturbance  now  j)asses  away,  and  the 
mind  remains  singularly  clear  to  the  close,  whatever  the  event  may  be.  In  other 
instances,  as  in  Dr.  Harlan's  case,  delirium,  restlessness,  and  insomnia  are  present, 
but  in  general  the  nervous  symptoms  of  this  and  of  the  earlier  stage  of  the  malady 
are  confined  to  slight  incoherence,  and  to  rare  sensory  delusions. 

The  state  of  the  secretions  and  discharges  seems  to  have  been  thought  of  so  little 
moment,  that  in  most  of  the  cases  they  are  not  even  alluded  to.  For  example,  the 
state  of  the  urine  is  not  spoken  of  in  any  one  instance.  The  vomiting  is  so  fre- 
quent and  so  enduring  a  symptom,  that  it  is  more  constantly  referred  to ;  but  of 
the  character  of  the  evacuation  thus  effected,  we  learn  almost  nothing.  From  the 
fact  that  in  some  of  the  cases  the  reporter  states  that  it  was  necessary  to  give  a 
purgative  to  complete  the  cure,  we  may,  perhaps,  infer  that  in  the  milder  cases, 
at  least,  no  diarrhoea  occurred.  In  two  of  the  fatal  cases,  diarrhoea  came  on  late 
in  the  disease,  and  in  one  we  are  told  that  the  stools  were  of  a  dark  bilious  cha- 
racter, but  beyond  this  we  are  left  in  ignorance. 

Four  fatal  cases  are  found  in  the  table.  Of  these,  the  most  rapid  was  that  of 
the  medical  man,  reported  by  Dr.  Post  (Table,  Case  No.  6)  ;  the  malady  ending 
in  death  by  coma,  within  five  hours  and  a  half.  This  was  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  case  of  acute  or  simple  primary  poisoning,  which  we  have  met  with  in  man. 

M.  Pihorel's  case  (Table,  Case  No.  16)  died  quietly  in  about  nine  and  a  half 
hours,  without  loss  of  intellect,  but  with  a  rapidly  increasing  difficulty  of  breathing 
and  swallowing. 

Dr.  Horner's  case  (Table,  Case  No.  4)  terminated  about  eighteen  hours  after  the 
bite  was  inflicted.  One  or  two  hours  before  death,  the  patient  had  a  general 
convulsion,  with  involuntary  evacuation  from  the  bowels,  but  without  any  foaming 
at  the  mouth.  He  appears  to  have  regained  his  senses  after  this  time.  Just 
before  he  expired,  he  complained  of  pain  in  the  colon,  said  he  felt  sleepy,  closed 
his  eyes,  and  died  quietly  without  agony,  and  without  convulsions. 

In  the  third  of  the  fatal  cases,  Sir  E.  Home's  (Table,  Case  12),  the  sufferer 
rallied  from  the  primary- poisoning,  and  died  on  the  seventeenth  day,  with  well 
expi'essed  typhous  symptoms. 

The  duration  of  the  various  cases,  and  their  mode  of  recovery  or  death,  is  of 
considerable  interest.  If  we  analyze  the  table  of  sixteen  cases,  we  shall  find  that, 
as  I  have  just  stated,  the  four  fatal  cases  terminated  in  five  and  a  half  hours,  nine 
hours,  eighteen  hours,  and  seventeen  days  respectively.  If,  again,  we  analyze  these 
four  cases  with  respect  to  the  question  of  death  from  primary  or  secondary  poison- 
ing, we  shall  discover  that  Case  No.  12  (Home's)  survived  not  only  the  early  effects, 
but  also,  to  a  great  extent,  the  constitutional  affection,  and  perished  in  the  effort  to 
get  rid  of  the  gangrenous  arm. 

On  examination,  the  blood  proved  to  be  coagulable.  It  is  probable  that  the 
blood  had  survived  the  infected  condition,  and  was  gradually  regaining  its  normal 
standard. 

Case  No.  4  (Horner)  seems  to  have  been  a  fair  representative  of  those  instances 
of  Crotalus  poisoning  which  I  have  termed  secondary  or  chronic.  The  patient 
14 


106  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

never  rallied  completely  from  the  depressing  eflfect  of  the  venom,  but  he  was  found 
after  death  to  have  a  perfectly  incoagulable  blood. 

Case  No.  16  (Pihorel)  died  in  nine  and  a  half  hours.  It  seems  to  have  ended 
before  the  blood  lost  its  coagulability,  so  that,  although  the  veins  of  the  bitten  arm 
contained  but  little  clotted  blood,  large  coagula  of  loose  structure  were  found  in 
the  main  venous  vessels  of  the  trunk,  and  in  the  right  auricle. 

Case  No.  6  (Post)  was  not  examined  after  death.  Of  the  remaining  twelve 
cases  of  the  table,  all  recovered  within  variable  periods.  Where  the  patient  was 
several  days  or  longer  indisposed,  the  delayed  recovery  was  usually  due  to  the 
local  lesions,  rather  than  to  prolonged  constitutional  malady. 

In  connection  with  the  history  of  the  amelioration  or  cure,  in  almost  every  case, 
we  are  struck  by  one  fact,  which  is  of  singular  value,  because  its  neglect  has  led 
to  almost  every  one  of  the  fallacies  attending  upon  the  use  of  the  supposed  anti- 
dotes which  have  attained  to  a  local  or  general  notoriety.  If  the  reader  will  glance 
at  the  Table  of  Crotalus  poisoning  in  man,  and  at  the  column  headed  "  Mode  of 
Recovery,"  he  will  observe  that  in  almost  every  case  the  relief  from  urgent  symp- 
toms was  sudden,  and  the  completed  cure  almost  nearly  so.  If,  again,  he  will 
look  at  the  column  in  which  are  grouped  the  constitutional  symptoms,  he  will 
certainly  feel  some  astonishment  at  their  gravity  in  relation  to  the  character  of  the 
convalescence.  So  extraordinary  was  this  contrast,  that  within  a  few  hours,  or 
a  day  in  most  cases,  the  patient,  whom  the  physician  regarded  as  almost  moribund, 
went  on  horseback  to  see  him,  or  was  able  to  move  about  the  house,  or  engage  in 
his  ordinary  avocations.  The  general  practical  inference  will  at  once  suggest  itself, 
upon  an  examination  of  the  numerous  and  varied  remedies  employed.  It  will  then 
be  seen  that,  under  the  most  different  systems  of  treatment,  the  several  cases  grew 
better,  or  entirely  recovered,  with  equal  abruptness.  Are  we  not  driven  to  the 
absurd  conclusion  that  each  and  every  remedy  is  equally  useful,  or  to  the  more 
logical  inference  that  sudden  relief  and  rapid  recovery  are  peculiarities  which  belong 
to  those  cases  of  Crotalus  bite  in  which  the  amount  of  venom  injected  has  not  been 
so  unusually  large  as  to  insure  a  fatal  ending  ? 

The  bearings  of  these  conclusions  upon  the  study  of  antidotes  require  but  little 
comment,  and  must  at  once  suggest  themselves  to  every  thoughtful  physician.  It 
is  almost  needless  to  add  that  the  reporters  have  usually  assumed  the  suddenness 
of  the  cures  to  be  due  in  each  case  to  the  peculiar  therapeutic  means  employed. 

I  have  already  described  the  local  consequences  of  the  bite.  The  various  reports 
make  no  mention  of  constitutional  results  succeeding  recovery.  One  very  curious 
statement,  however,  is  found  in  connection  with  case  No.  5  (Phillips).  The 
patient,  a  female,  was  suffering  when  bitten,  from  a  severe  attack  of  hooping-cough, 
of  which  she  was  suddenly  and  completely  cured  by  the  effects  of  the  venom. 

P.  M.  Section. — The  three  cases  of  post-mortem  examination  offer  very  little, 
save  negative  information,  as  to  the  character  of  the  lesions. 

The  Head. — Dr.  Horner  found  the  brain  of  a  healthy  consistence,  but  congested 
so  that  the  cortical  substance  was  of  a  deep  brown  tint.  A  good  deal  of  serum 
oozed  from  the  cut  surfaces.  About  a  drachm  of  transparent  serum  was  present  in 
each  lateral  ventricle.     The  medulla  spinalis  was  healthy;  its  tunica  arachnoidea 


OF   THE   VENOM   OF  -THE    RATTLESNAKE.  107 

being  somewhat  turbid  in  places,  as  if  from  some  former  cause.  The  veins  of  the 
pia  mater  and  the  vertebral  veins  were  full  of  blood. 

M.  Pihorel  makes  a  similar  report  of  his  case.  He  found  some  thickening  of  the 
cerebral  arachnoid,  which  was  also  adherent  to  the  pia  mater,  but  to  what  extent 
he  does  not  state.  The  blood  of  the  sinuses  and  of  the  dura  mater  was  fluid.  The 
same  condition  as  to  fulness  of  blood,  and  the  same  slight  excess  of  serum  in  the 
ventricles  and  sub-arachnoid  spaces,  existed  in  Sir  E.  Home's  case. 

Tliorax. — Dr.  Horner  found  all  the  thoracic  organs  healthy,  except  that  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart  was  described  as  hypertrophied.  The  heart  was  nearly 
empty,  owing  to  the  escape  of  its  fluid  when  the  head  was  opened. 

M.  Pihorel  found  the  walls  of  the  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes  congested,  a  spot 
of  distinct  inflammation  corresponding  to  the  cricoid  cartilage.  The  trachea  and 
bronchise  were  full  of  a  red  and  frothy  mucus.  The  lungs  were  healthy  and  crepi- 
tant, but  were  somewhat  congested  ("premier  degr6  d'engorgement  sanguin"). 
Two  inches  below  the  pharynx  the  oesophagus  was  narrowed,  but  no  notable  altera- 
tion of  its  tissues  could  be  discovered. 

In  Sir  E.  Home's  case  the  lungs  were  healthy,  the  anterior  fold  of  the  pericar- 
dium was  dry,  resembling  a  dried  bladder.  The  cavity  of  this  membrane  contained 
half  an  ounce  of  serous  fluid,  frothy  from  admixture  with  gases  which  escaped  in 
bubbles. 

Abdomen.  Horner's  Case. — The  peritoneum  contained  a  few  ounces  of  serum. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  was  intensely  injected  with  blood,  and  most 
remarkably  so  in  the  wrinkles  of  the  mucous  membrane.  It  exhibited  neither 
ecchymosis  or  softening,  and  contained  the  articles  prescribed  in  the  morning,  with 
but  little  gas. 

The  mucous  coat  of  the  small  intestines  was  dotted  "with  patches  of  acute 
inflammation.  These  spots  were  of  a  lively  red  and  very  numerous,  especially  in  the 
jejunum.  This  latter  intestine  had  its  parietes  considerably  thickened  by  an  infil- 
tration of  serum,  and  was  partially  filled  with  a  dark  bilious  matter.  The  colon  was 
sound  but  contracted,  and  contained  at  its  head  some  hard  fecal  excrement.  The 
liver  was  yellow  and  enlarged,  which  was  attributed  to  the  habits  of  the  patient." 

M.  Pihorel  found  all  the  abdominal  organs  healthy.  Sir  E.  Home  describes  the* 
stomach  in  the  case  of  Soaper  as  turgid  with  blood.  All  the  other  abdominal  organs 
were  healthy.  In  Pihorel's  and  Home's  cases  the  blood  was  more  or  less  coagu- 
lated. In  Horner's  it  was  everywhere  perfectly  fluid.  Dr.  Horner  says  that  the 
muscles  were  of  a  brownish  yellow  color  throughout  the  body. 

The  local  swelling  in  Dr.  Horner's  case  was  due  to  serous  infiltration ;  in  that  of 
M.  Pihorel,  but  little  swelling  existed  during  life  after  the  ligature  was  removed, 
and  at  the  post-mortem  inspection  the  tumefaction  of  the  bite  between  the  two 
metacarpal  bones  extended  only  half  an  inch  around  it.  The  bite  on  the  dorsal 
face  of  the  thumb  was  not  at  all  swollen.  The  muscles  in  these  localities  were 
unaltered.  Sir  E.  Home's  case  presented  at  the  time  of  death  extensive  sloughs  of 
skin  on  the  arm  and  forearm.  A  large  abscess  existed  on  the  outside  of  the  arm, 
elbow,  and  forearm.  The  parts  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  bite  and  in 
the  palm  were  healthy,  except  that  there  was  a  little  extravasated  blood  in  the 


108  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

areolar  spaces.  The  skin  still  adhered  to  the  biceps  flexor  muscle  in  the  arm  and 
to  the  flexor  muscles  in  the  forearm,  by  a  dark-colored  cellular  tissue.  Elsewhere 
in  the  arm  and  forearm,  the  skin  and  muscles  from  the  axilla  down  were  separated 
by  a  dark  fluid  of  an  ofi"ensive  odor,  containing  sloughs  of  the  dead  cellular  tissue 
floating  in  it.  "  The  muscles  had  their  natural  appearance  everywhere,  except  on 
the  surface  which  was  next  to  the  abscess.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  abscess,  blood 
was  extravasated  in  the  cellular  membrane,  and  this  appearance  was  observable  on 
the  right  side  of  the  back  as  far  as  the  loins,  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  chest 
over  the  serratus  major  anticus  muscle." 

Dr.  Horner's  case  occurred  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  month  of  July,  and  was  ex- 
amined four  and  a  half  hours  after  death.  M.  Pihorel  does  not  give  the  exact  date 
of  his  case.  It  took  place  at  Rouen,  and  from  various  allusions  in  the  text  of  his 
report,  it  is  plain  that  the  weather  was  cold.  The  examination  did  not  occur  until 
five  days  after  death,  but  the  cold  was  so  great  that  the  body  is  said  to  have  been 
in  excellent  preservation.  Sir  E.  Home's  case  occurred  in  London,  during  the 
month  of  October.     It  was  examined  sixteen  hours  after  death. 

Antidotes. — It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  question  of  antidotes  and 
remedies  would  be  considered  fully  and  experimentally,  at  the  close  of  this  Essay. 
Such,  indeed,  was  my  intention  when  I  began  the  present  investigation,  but  it  soon 
became  clear  to  me  that  a  just  and  useful  experimental  testing  of  this  matter  was 
out  of  the  question  until  I  became  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  habits  and 
movements  of  the  Rattlesnake,  the  precise  character  of  the  venom,  and  its  various 
modes  of  acting  on  the  system.  Portions  of  this  information  were  to  be  found 
scattei'ed  through  books  and  journals,  but  these  disjointed  studies  were  incomplete, 
and  it  soon  grew  more  and  more  apparent  that  a  consideration  of  the  entire  sub- 
ject, and  a  certain  familiarity  with  the  powers  of  the  poison  must  still,  of  necessity, 
precede  an  investigation  of  antidotes.  Impressed  with  this  idea,  I  have  endeavored, 
in  the  present  paper,  to  render  more  easy  the  still  difficult  task  of  examining  the 
therapeutics  of  Ci'otalus  bite. 

It  was  well  said  by  a  distinguished  physician,  that  there  are  always  a  great  num- 
ber of  medicines  for  those  diseases  which  are  either  very  easy  or  very  difficult  to 
•  cure.  Such  has  been  the  fate  of  Crotalus  poisoning  to  a  remarkable  degree,  for 
not  only  have  physicians  exhausted  their  ingenuity  in  the  discovery  of  antidotes, 
but  the  popular  medicine  of  log-cabin,  or  rough  border  clearings,  has  contributed 
to  its  strange  therapeutics,  some  twenty  or  thirty  plants  which  owe  their  reputation 
to  Indian  traditions,  and  to  other,  and  often  accidental,  circumstances. 

Each  one  of  these  remedies  has  acquired  a  local  credit ;  has  passed  from  the 
people  to  the  physicians ;  has  seemed  to  cure  in  their  hands,  as  it  had  done  in  those 
of  the  good  wife  or  herb  doctor,  and  finally,  after  going  the  rounds  of  the  daily  press 
and  the  medical  journals,  has  died  a  natural  death,  or  received  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
bedside  of  some  too  deeply  injured  patient.  Accepted  upon  slight  evidence,  and 
thrown  aside  upon  equally  feeble  proof  of  inutility,  such  has  been  the  career  of 
the  many  and  famous  antidotes,  which  in  this  and  other  lands  have  embarrassed 
the  therapeutics  of  these  much-dreaded  injuries. 

While,  however,  the  larger   part  of  the    reputed  constitutional   remedies    are 


OF  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  109 

mere  sudorifics,  or  entirely  inert,  the  local  therapeutics  of  Crotalus  bite  have  been 
always  of  the  most  decisive  and  potent  character.  Without  entering  into  the  his- 
tory of  these  means,  I  desire  to  assign  to  them  their  proper  place  in  the  treatment, 
and  also  to  define  the  real  limits  of  their  utility.  We  shall,  therefore,  discuss  them 
in  turn,  and  for  this  purpose  shall  divide  them  into,  1st,  Those  which  remove  the 
poison  and  the  poisoned  part,  as  excision,  amputation. 

2d.  Those  which  partially  remove  the  venom,  and  more  or  less  detain  it  in  the 
wounded  part.  In  this  class,  we  have  a  variety  of  agents  acting  in  ways  as  va- 
rious, as 

Scarifications.  Suctions. 

Ligature.  Caustics. 

3d.  Those  agents  which,  being  injected  into  the  wound,  or  wounded  part,  are 
supposed  to  destroy  the  venom,  or  to  render  it  innocuous,  as  injections  of  iodine. 

4th.  Local  ajjplications  of  various  substances,  as  alcohol,  ammonia,  indigo,  olive 
oil,  etc. 

Class  1st.  Excision,  the  only  local  means  which  proposes  to  remove  at  once  and 
entirely  the  poison  and  the  poisoned  part  has  been  occasionally  resorted  to.  Dr. 
Harlan,  Case  14  of  the  Table,  used  it  freely.  In  another  instance,  in  France, 
even  amputation  of  a  finger  was  promptly  and  successfully  resorted  to  in  a  case  of 
Crotalus  bite. 

Excision  and  amputation  are  more  or  less  usefully  available,  as  the  resort  to  them 
is  more  or  less  early,  and  their  utility  is  also  increased  when  a  ligature  has  been  so 
applied  as  to  arrest  the  local  circulation,  immediately  after  the  bite.  In  the  French 
case,  the  instant  ablation  of  the  part  was  perfectly  successful;  in  Dr.  Harlan's  case 
the  malady  was  extremely  grave  after  the  operation,  and  we  have,  indeed,  no 
means  of  saying  whether  or  not  it  proved  useful.  It  seems  likely  that  in  so  severe 
a  case,  the  removal  by  excision  of  any  part  of  the  poison  might  favorably  determine 
the  issue  of  the  almost  balanced  chances.  Necessarily,  excision  would  be  unavail- 
able where  the  fang  had  buried  itself  deeply  in  a  part  like  the  neck. 

Where  the  snake  has  been  long  confined  without  using  its  venom,*  so  that  the 
amount  injected  has  probably  been  great,  and  where  the  part  bitten  is  a  small 
extremity,  excision,  or,  rather,  amputation,  would  be  justifiable.  Where,  on  ac-' 
count  of  the  serpent  being  at  large,  we  cannot  judge  as  to  the  quantity  of  poison 
stored  up  in  its  ducts,  and  where  excision  would  affect  important  parts,  it  is  cer- 
tainly better  to  accept  for  the  patient  the  ordinary  prognostic  chances  of  the  poi- 
soning, under  a  less  heroic  local  treatment.  Above  all,  is  it  to  be  remembered 
that,  while  it  may  be  good  practice  to  amputate  a  finger  within  a  few  moments 
of  the  bite,  the  value  of  the  operation  lessens  as  we  recede  from  this  period,  because 
the  poison  exerts  its  power  so  rapidly,  that  its  effects  soon  pass  beyond  the  reach  of 
any  justifiable  operation,  and  excision  then  could  do  only  what  other  and  safer 
means  might  effect. 


'  It  is  curious  that  the  fatal  cases  found  in  the  journals  were  nearly  all  occasioned  by  the  bite  of  snakes 
which,  during  long  imprisonment,  had  accumulated  a  large  amount  of  venom. 


110  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

Class  2d  of  local  means  acts  in  ways  so  various  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  con- 
sider these  separately. 

Scarifications. — It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  mere  incisions  could  be  of  much  value, 
unless  made  expressly  so  as  to  cut  off  the  wound  from  the  system,  by  destroying 
for  a  time  its  vascular  connection  with  the  centres.  Where  ablation  or  excision  is 
no  longer  justified,  incisions  may  be  made  into  the  part,  and  so  directed  as  to  tra- 
verse the  line  of  the  fang  wounds. 

Suction.  Cups. — Suction  by  the  mouth  is  an  ancient  practice,  and  one  which  is 
supposed  to  be  effectual.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  narrow  fang-track  would  allow 
of  the  return  of  the  poison  under  any  suctorial  power  of  which  the  lips  are  capa- 
ble, unless  the  wound  were  unusually  large.  Where  a  previous  incision  has  been 
carried  deeply  through  the  bitten  part,  it  is  possible  that  suction  may  remove  some 
of  the  venom,  but  as  Dr.  Pennock  has  shown,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  cups  and 
suction  merely  delay  the  constitutional  poisoning,  by  retarding  the  local  circulation 
and  the  subsequent  distribution  of  the  venom.  Either  may  be  thus  of  value,  as 
Barry  proved  in  regard  to  cups,  but  neither  can  do  more  than  afford  time  for  the 
administration  of  general  and  more  permanent  local  means.  Cups  are  available 
only  in  certain  localities ;  suction  by  the  lips  may  be  used  on  the  small  extremities, 
in  advance  of  all  other  means. 

Ligatures. — The  first  resource  in  serpent  bite  has  been  to  tie  a  ligature  around  the 
limb.  Of  course,  there  are  localities  in  which  this  cannot  be  done,  and  where  only 
cups  can  be  used.  The  value  of  the  ligature  has  been  repeatedly  tested,  not  only 
in  this,  but  in  other  modes  of  poisoning,  and  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  a  ligature 
tightly  applied  above  the  wound  will,  for  a  time,  secure  the  system  from  the  con- 
sequences of  the  venom  inoculation.  But  this  is  all  which  it  can  do.  Time  is 
obtained  for  the  use  of  other  means,  both  local  and  general,  and  then  a  period 
arrives  when  the  swelling  and  interrupted  circulation  threaten  the  bitten  member 
with  gangrene,  and  at  last  the  physician  reluctantly  loosens  the  band  which  qua- 
rantined the  deadly  material,  and  the  system  passes  rapidly  under  its  influence. 
Allowing  the  ligature — as  we  must  do — to  be  of  the  utmost  value  for  a  time,  can 
we  not  derive  from  its  use  yet  further  advantages,  without  subjecting  our  patients 
to  the  sudden  influx  of  the  poison  when  the  guarding  band  is  loosened  ?  Two  pre- 
cautions will  probably  insure  the  requisite  end.  Let  the  cord  be  loosened  for  a 
few  minutes  at  a  time,  and  at  intervals,  with  a  constant  eye  to  the  constitutional 
symptoms,  and  let  the  delay  secured  by  the  ligature  be  used  not  only  to  apply  local 
means,  but  to  administer  general  remedies.  This  method,  which  I  shall  term  the 
iiitermittent  ligature,  seems  to  have  been  first  employed  by  the  well  known  natu- 
ralist, Prof  Holbrook,  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Ogier. 
Their  experiments,  which  were  numerous  and  satisfactory,  have  never  been  pub- 
lished. 

The  precautions  in  the  use  of  the  ligature  which  I  have  just  recommended  have 
been  advocated  singly,  or  together,  by  several  more  recent  authors,  and  especially 
by  Drs.  Alexander  and  Jeter. 

Several  writers  have  recognized  the  danger  of  suddenly  removing  the  ligature, 
and  it  would  be  easy  to  criticize  some  of  the  reports  of  treatment  in  which  the 


OP  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  HI 

above  precautions  have  been  neglected,  and  where  the  sudden  prostration  which 
ensued  was  most  appalling. 

Dr.  Alexander  relates  a  singular,  but  instructive  case,  in  which  the  ligature 
was  retained  for  sixteen  hours.  Meanwhile,  the  parts  below  were  swollen  and 
vesicating,  but  the  system  remained  unaflfected,  and  readily  passed  under  the 
influence  of  stimulants.  Either  during  the  profound  intoxication  which  ensued,  or 
soon  after,  at  all  events,  sixteen  hours  from  the  time  of  the  bite,  the  ligature  was 
removed.  The  swelling  at  once  passed  the  line  of  the  ligating  cord,  and  advanced 
up  the  leg  to  the  body.  The  patient  died  in  two  hours  after  the  release  of  the 
previously  isolated  poison.  Instructed  by  this  sad  case,  the  reporter  directs  that 
the  ligature  should  be  merely  relaxed,  and  the  pulse  kept  up  with  stimulants  as 
required,  and  that  the  cord  should  be  tightened  or  loosened  as  the  symptoms  direct. 
This  plan  is  so  clearly  recommended  by  common  sense,  that  it  is  needless  to  dwell 
upon  it  further. 

Unfortunately,  the  ligature  can  be  used  only  when  the  bite  is  on  an  extremity. 
In  other  cases,  cups  may  be  similarly  employed,  but  even  these  are  not  always 
available,  as  where  the  nose  is  the  part  bitten,  and  moreover,  they  are  not  always 
at  hand. 

Caustics. — These  agents  are  supposed  to  be  useful,  not  only  by  destroying  the 
tissues,  and  so  unfitting  them  for  absorption,  but  also  by  chemically  acting  on 
the  venom  itself.  So  far  as  they  do  act  on  the  tissues,  they  are  beneficial, 
when  fully  applied  along  or  through  previous  incisions.  As  to  their  power  to  alter 
the  venom,  it  is  clear  that  the  actual  cautery  does  do  this  effectually,  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  potassa,  soda,  ammonia,  and  the  undiluted  mineral  acids  do  not  affect 
its  toxic  potency.  Except,  then,  as  they  alter  the  tissues,  it  were  better  to  reject 
them,  and  to  depend  upon  the  actual  cautery  alone,  where  such  means  is  deemed  of 
value. 

Class  2>cl. — Dr.  Brainard,  some  time  ago,  directed  attention  to  the  injection  of  an 
iodized  solution  of  iodine,  as  a  means  of  destroying  the  activity  of  Crotalus  venom. 
His  process  is  as  follows  :  Ten  grains  of  iodine  and  thirty  grains  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium are  dissolved  in  one  ounce  of  water.  The  bitten  part  is  first  cupped,  or  a 
ligature  is  applied  on  the  limb,  until  the  tissues  ai'e  swollen  with  serum  sufficiently 
to  enable  the  injection  to  be  diffused  through  the  distended  areolar  spaces.  The 
sharp  point  of  a  trocar,  or  injecting-tube,  is  then  pushed  laterally  into  the  bitten 
part,  and  the  injection  effected  by  pressing  down  the  piston  of  the  syringe,  while 
the  exhaustion  of  the  cup  is  still  carried  on.  Apart  from  the  antidotal  value  of 
this  ingenious  method,  it  is  clear  that  the  necessary  apparatus  is  not  easily  procu- 
rable in  time  to  be  of  use.  Moreover,  Dr.  Brainard  adds  that,  to  render  it 
effectual,  we  must  be  provided  with  cups  of  various  curves  adapted  to  fit  the 
surfaces  of  the  body  and  limbs.  Dr.  Brainard  states  that  the  iodine  does  not  act 
as  a  caustic.  M.  Reynose,  in  an  admirable  paper,  has  examined  the  statements  of 
Dr.  Brainard,  and  especially  with  reference  to  the  action  of  iodine  as  an  antidote 
to  woorara.  He  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  iodine  was  a  caustic,  and  that 
its  value  was  due  to  this  fact,  a  conclusion  in  which  his  experiments  did  not  entirely 
justify  him. 


112  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

The  question  of  the  reality  of  the  influence  of  the  iodine  upon  the  active  qualities 
of  Crotalus  venom  still  rests  upon  rather  insecure  ground.  It  certainly  seems  to 
have  been  successful  in  pigeons,  but  the  fallacies  which  surround  these  researches 
are  numerous  and  bafiling,  and  the  experimentum  crucis  of  mixing  the  iodine  with 
the  venom  before  innoculating  with  it,  was  not  made  by  Dr.  Brainard.  To  set  the 
matter  at  rest,  I  have  recently  made  a  number  of  expeidments.  It  was  apparent 
that  if  animals  previously  bitten  could  be  saved  by  subsequent  injections  of  iodine 
into  the  part,  they  should  run  no  risk  when  a  mixture  of  venom  and  the  iodine 
solution  was  thrown  into  their  tissues.  On  pursuing  this  method,  I  observed,  as 
Dr.  Brainard  had  done,  that  the  local  symptoms  were  slight,  or  did  not  appear  at 
all,  but  whereas  his  cases  recovered,  mine  died  despite  the  absence  of  local  pheno- 
mena. The  explanation  of  this  latter  fact,  as  well  as  the  full  details  of  numerous 
observations  upon  the  use  of  reputed  constitutional  antidotes,  I  shall  set  forth  at 
length  in  a  future  essay.  At  present  I  can  only  add  that  iodine  as  a  local  antidote 
has  uniformly  failed  in  my  hands,  although  every  means  was  taken  to  give  it  a 
fair  trial.  It  is  proper  to  state  here  that  Dr.  Brainard  made  use,  not  of  the  Cro- 
talus, but  of  the  Crotalopliorus  tergeminus,  or  prairie  Rattlesnake  of  the  west.  As 
yet.  Dr.  Brainard's  antidote  has  never  been  employed  upon  the  body  of  man,  except 
by  Dr.  Coolidge,  who  unfortunately  used  the  Bibron  treatment  at  the  same  time. 

Class  ith. — Consists  of  various  substances  which  have  been  applied  to  the  skin 
on  and  about  the  wound,  or  placed  in  contact  with  the  raw  surfaces  of  the  incisions 
or  excisions.  Among  them  are  warm  and  cold  water,  ammonia,  alcohol,  olive  oil, 
etc.  My  own  experiments,  and  the  observations  of  others,  justify  us  in  rejecting 
them  altogether,  so  far  at  least  as  they  are  supposed  to  exert  specific  power. 

Although,  as  I  have  already  said,  I  consider  this  essay  as  but  a  preparation  for 
the  full  experimental  examination  of  the  treatment  of  serpent  bite,  I  do  not  wish 
to  conclude  without  some  comment  upon  the  constitutional  remedies  which  I  have 
necessarily  been  called  upon  to  survey  and  judge  in  the  course  of  my  researches. 
A  host  of  these  may  be  dismissed  with  a  word,  but  before  I  criticize  those  of  greater 
pretension,  it  will  be  proper  to  make  some  statements  regarding  the  misconceptions 
which  have  crept  into  this  part  of  the  subject. 

If,  as  I  have  elsewhere  urged,  we  could  dismiss  from  view  the  mode  in  which  the 
virus  enters  the  body,  and  were  called  upon  to  consider  only  the  resultant  malady, 
we  would  as  little  have  dreamed  of  specifics  or  real  antidotes,  as  we  now  do  in 
yellow  fever,  or  ordinary  putrefactive  poisoning.  We  should  at  least  have  con- 
fessed that  such  belonged  only  to  the  hopes  of  therapeutics,  and  not  to  its  attained 
realities.  Such,  however,  is  the  tangible  and  visible  nature  of  the  poison  that  we 
have  been  continually  seduced  into  the  idea  that  we  must  possess  some  available 
and  directly  efficient  means  of  actually  neutralizing  its  power,  when  once  in  the 
system  itself. 

Apart,  then,  from  the  question  of  local  antidotes,  which  is  altogether  a  different 
matter,  what  probability  is  there  that  we  really  possess  specific  general  remedies  ? 
Even  here,  the  knowledge  that  our  local  means,  however  active,  and  with  all  our 
power  to  place  them  in  direct  contact  with  the  venom,  are  but  too  ineffectual, 
should  at  least  have  taught  us  to  receive  with  wise  mistrust  every  account  of  con- 
stitutional antidotes. 


OF  THE  YENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESXAKE.  113 

Antidotes  considered  with  reference  to  the  sj'stem  at  large,  are  of  only  two  kinds. 
Those  which  meet  the  poison  in  the  vessels  of  the  economy,  and  then  and  there 
chemically  alter  it,  so  as  to  destroy  its  potency,  and  those  which,  like  most  of  our 
medicines,  are  absorbed,  circulate,  and  cotmteract  the  effects  of  the  poison.  Thus  a 
sedative  may  counteract  a  stimulant,  and  vice  versa,  and  each  would,  in  this  sense, 
be  for  the  other  a  physiological  antidote,-  but  would  in  nowise  correspond  with  the 
popular  conception  of  an  antidote. 

The  remedies  which  still  hold  repute  as  antidotes  are  few  in  number.  They  are 
ammonia,  olive  oil,  arsenic  (as  the  Tanjore  pill),  Bibron's  antidote  (Bromine),  and 
alcoholic  stimuli. 

The  pretensions  of  ammonia  in  this  connection  have  been  long  since  settled  by 
the  experiments  of  Fontana  on  Vipers,  and  of  Brainard  on  Crotalophorus.  I  have 
also  tested  its  supposed  utility  in  cases  of  animals  poisoned  by  Crotalus  venom,  and 
it  will  answer  our  present  purpose  to  add  that  it  failed  almost  uniformly.  Notwith- 
standing the  continued  faith  still  reposed  in  it  by  some,  and  the  cures  attributed  to 
its  use,  I  am  convinced  that  it  has  no  powers  which  alcohol  does  not  enjoy  to  a  superior 
degree,  and  I  feel  equallj^  sure  that  its  exhibition  should  never  be  allowed  to  sup- 
plant the  use  of  other  and  better  stimulants.  That  it  has  no  value  as  a  chemical 
antidote,  the  experiments  elsewhere  related  in  this  paper  sufficiently  prove,  if  proof 
were  wanting. 

Olive  oil  is  another  remedj'  which  has  been  gravely  urged  and  has  received  the 
support  of  numerous  successful  cases.  What  these  are  worth,  or  with  what  allow- 
ance they  should  be  entertained,  has,  I  trust,  been  set  in  clear  light  by  the  general 
argument  which  I  have  founded  on  all  the  cases  which  I  have  analyzed.  After 
the  experiments  of  Fontana  on  its  use  in  Viper  poisoning,  it  is  strange  that  the 
most  confident  should  have  dared  to  employ  it  again. 

Arsenic,  unlike  olive  oil,  certainly  does  not  belong  to  the  class  of  expectant 
remedies.  Its  use  in  snake-bites  comes  from  the  East,  where  as  the  "  Tanjore 
pill"  it  attained  great  celebrity. 

This  well-known  medicine  is  composed  of  arsenious  acid,  three  East  Indian  roots, 
two  of  which  are  purgative,  and  one  an  acro-narcotic,  mixed  with  pepper  and  the 
juice  of  the  wild  cotton  plant.  Two  of  the  pills,  containing  each  three-fourths  of 
a  grain  of  the  arsenic,  are  given  at  once,  and  one  at  the  close  of  an  hour,  a  rather 
formidable  dose  of  so  active  a  medicine.  Russell  (p.  6-5),  who  examined  this 
remedy,  was  not  satisfied  with  it,  nor  am  I  aware  that  it  has  retained  its  celebrity, 
or  that  any  one  has  used  it  in  Rattlesnake  bite. 

Bibron's  antidote  is  a  more  novel  remedy,  of  the  value  of  which  I  am  not  fully 
prepared  to  judge.  Its  history  is  rather  curious.  Mr.  Xantus  obtained  it  in  the 
first  place  from  Prince  Paul,  of  Wurtemberg,  the  well-known  traveller  and  natu- 
ralist. This  gentleman  stated  that  it  had  been  invented  and  employed  by  Prof. 
Bibron,  of  Paris,  but  neitlier  Mr.  Xantus  or  Dr.  Hammond  has  been  able  to  find 
any  printed  account  of  it,  nor  have  I  been  more  successful.  The  chief  evidence  in 
its  favor  rests  upon  a  considerable  number  of  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Hammond 
and  Mr.  Xantus,  and  upon  three  cases  reported  by  the  same  observers.  Mr. 
Xantus  states  one  fact  which  I  have  been  thus  far  unable  to  verify,  namely,  that 
15 


lU  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 

dogs  which  were  under  the  influence  of  the  antidote,  were  for  some  time  incapable 
of  being  affected  by  Rattlesnake  bites.  This  exjDerimenter  states  that  after  seven- 
teen experiments,  in  which  three  dogs  were  at  different  times  bitten  by  seventeen 
different  serpents,  he  met  with  no  cose  in  which  the  antidote  failed.  These 
results  are  not  stated  with  sufficient  precision  as  to  the  condition  of  the  snake, 
the  number  of  fang-marks,  or  the  place  of  the  bite,  but  they  are  still  sufficiently 
interesting  to  awaken  further  research. 

Dr.  Hammond  was  not  so  fortunate  as  Mr.  Xantus.  He  experimented  with 
the  antidote  on  a  wolf  which  was  apparently  saved  by  the  use  of  the  bromine  after 
being  once  bitten,  but  upon  another  occasion,  having  been  thrice  bitten,  died  sud- 
denly, exhibiting,  however,  some  evidence  of  having  been  aided  by  the  remedy. 
A  dog  severely  injured  by  snake-bite  was  successfully  treated  by  Dr.  Hammond 
with  the  bromine  antidote. 

One  of  the  cases  of  man  in  which  Dr.  Coolidge  (Dr.  Hammond's  Report)  used 
this  antidote,  was  also  treated  with  local  injection  of  iodine,  and  must,  therefore, 
be  laid  aside.     The  patient  expressed  herself  relieved  by  the  use  of  the  antidote. 

The  case  directly  reported  by  Dr.  Hammond  also  seemed  to  experience  great 
assistance  from  the  antidote,  so  that  even  the  local  symptoms  were  promptly 
relieved  by  its  use.  No  local  means  seem  to  have  been  employed,  and  the  case  is 
thus  unusually  free  from  complication. 

Mr.  Xantus'  case  was  said  to  have  been  almost  hopeless  when  the  bromine 
was  employed.  The  worst  symptoms  rapidly  subsided  when  the  antidote  was  given, 
although  but  two  doses  were  used.  Were  it  not  for  our  knowledge  of  the  natural 
history  of  the  malady,  and  of  the  strange  suddenness  with  which  cases  almost  mori- 
bund rapidly  amend,  we  could  not  fail  to  be  greatly  impressed  with  the  evidence 
thus  furnished.  As  it  is,  perceiving  no  obvious  adaptation  of  means  to  ends,  we 
can  only  await  the  issues  of  a  larger  and  more  general  experience  to  determine 
the  question. 

My  own  experiments  upon  the  use  of  this  antidote  were  made  on  sixteen  dogs, 
and  were  conducted  with  scrupulous  cai'e.  It  does  not  suit  my  present  purpose  to 
enter  into  the  details;  it  will  suffice  to  state  that  their  results  were  nearly  negative. 
Of  eight  dogs  bitten  and  treated  with  the  antidote,  two  died;  while  of  eight  bitten, 
and  not  so  treated,  three  died. 

The  last  of  the  reputed  antidotes  which  we  shall  criticize  is  alcoholic  stimulus. 
In  one  form  or  another  this  has  been  employed  in  India  and  in  this  country,  and 
no  single  remedy  is  so  much  in  repute  along  our  borders  or  in  our  Rattlesnake 
regions.  Perhaps  the  evidence  in  its  favor  is  not  much  better  than  that  which 
exists  for  some  other  means,  but  its  real  strength,  in  the  lack  of  proper  and  nume- 
rous reports,  lies  in  its  obvious  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  those  who  seek  its  aid. 
Moreover,  the  experiments  on  the  state  of  the  heart  and  nervous  system  of  animals, 
in  the  first  stage  of  the  Crotalus  malady,  clearly  indicate  a  condition  of  things  which 
is  to  be  met  alone  by  the  use  of  supporting  agents,  and  these  the  most  rapid  and 
effective  which  we  can  command. 

When,  too,  we  consider  the  state  of  a  person  bitten,  and  constitutionally  affected, 
we  perceive  at  once  that  we  have  to  deal  with  a  degree  of  prostration  which  instantly 


OP  THE  VENOM  OP  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  115 

suggests  the  free  use  of  stimulus.  When  this  is  given,  and  is  successful  in  raising 
the  pulse,  the  result  is  commonly  a  rapid  and  easy  cure,  but  the  amount  of  alco- 
holic fluids  necessary  to  secure  even  partial  intoxication  is  scarcely  credible. 
Quarts  of  brandy  have  been  thus  taken  by  delicate  females  and  mere  children  with- 
out injury,  and  almost  without  effect.  This  alone  is,  to  some  extent,  evidence  in 
favor  of  the  remedial  means  under  discussion. 

It  is  very  plain,  then,  that  in  the  state  of  profound  sedation,  or,  rather,  prostra- 
tion, which  ushers  in  the  general  maladj^,  stimulants  are  distinctly  indicated.  It 
is  also  clear  that  the  means  thus  pointed  out  is  a  physiological  antidote,  a  coun- 
teractive agent,  and  is  to  be  used  to  an  effect  and  with  certain  precautions. 

When,  therefore,  a  person  has  been  bitten,  it  would  be  proper  slightly  to  intoxi- 
cate him,  then  to  loosen  the  previously  applied  ligature  or  cup,  and  watching 
the  pulse,  and  relaxing  or  tightening  the  ligating  cord  to  control  thus  the  inlet  of 
the  poison,  with  the  aid  of  the  stimulus  destroy  its  effects  in  detail.  Finally,  the 
stimulus  should  be  most  cautiously  and  by  degrees  abandoned,  with  continued  re- 
gard to  the  state  of  the  system. 

There  is  a  popular,  I  might  almost  have  said  a  medical  belief,  that  the  condition 
of  perfect  protection  is  complete  intoxication.  Two  or  three  authors,  as  Jeter, 
Alexander,  and  others,  protest  against  this  idea,  and  with  every  appearance  of  right 
on  their  side. 

Profound  drunkenness  is  a  condition  of  sedation  and  not  of  excitement,  and  yet 
the  whole  object  of  using  alcohol  in  snake-bites  has  been  among  rational  men  to 
stimulate  and  not  to  lull  or  depress  the  system.  In  fact,  it  is  well  known  that  per- 
sons who  were  at  the  time  "  dead  drunk,"  or  nearly  so,  have  been  bitten  by  Rattle- 
snakes, and  have  obtained  thereby  no  immunity  from  the  effects  of  the  bite.  Dr. 
Brainard,  who  is  opposed  to  the  use  of  stimulus  in  Crotalus  bite,  thinks  the  evidence 
in  its  favor  insufficient,  and  thus  sums  up  his  argument  against  its  utility: — 

"When  mixed  with  alcohol,  the  venom  is  rapidly  fatal,  if  inoculated."  This 
opinion  is  correct,  but  has  no  value  as  in  opposition  to  the  constitutional  use  of 
stimuli,  because  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  chemical  antidotes,  and  their  direct 
reaction  with  the  venom  becomes,  therefore,  a  matter  of  indifference. 

Dr.  Brainard  also  urges  that  when  venom  is  injected  into  the  tissues,  or  intro- 
duced into  the  stomachs  of  birds  or  small  animals  bitten,  it  only  hastens  death. 

This,  he  adds,. is  not  conclusive,  because  alcohol  is  a  poison  to  birds  and  other 
small  animals.  The  authority  for  these  statements  I  have  been  unable  to  find. 
It  is  not  Fontana,  and  I  cannot  discover  in  Dr.  Brainard's  papers  that  the  conclu- 
sion here  stated  is  based  upon  his  own  experiments.  If  true,  it  would  have  little 
value,  the  real  point  in  question  being  whether  stimulation  is  useful  in  cases  of 
Crotalus  bite.  To  determine  this,  we  should  intoxicate  animals  and  then  inocu- 
late them  with  known  amounts  of  venom,  or  first  inoculate  and  then  give  the 
stimulant.  Moreover,  we  should  resort  to  as  large  animals  as  can  easily  be 
managed ;  the  venom  being  so  fatal  to  all  small  animals,  and  especially  to  birds, 
as  to  give  but  little  time  for  remedies.  Again,  in  small  animals,  and  particularly 
in  birds,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  ascertain  and  govern  the  degree  of  stimulation 
which  may  be  present  or  desirable. 


116  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   TOXICOLOGY 

The  last  argument  against  stimulants  used  hj  Dr.  Brainard,  is  the  fact  that 
intoxicated  persons  have  died  from  Crotalus  bite.  He  states  that  he  has  authentic 
information  as  to  four  such  cases.  Now  it  is  plain,  as  I  have  urged,  that  deep 
drunkenness  is  not  -the  condition  which  we  desire,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  a 
person  who  was  in  this  state  would  be  overcome  by  the  venom  with  more  than 
common  facility,  as  indeed  may  be  inferred  from  Dr.  Brainard's  statement.  If, 
however,  the  cases  which  he  refers  to  wei'e  only  somewhat  intoxicated  when  bitten, 
it  would  be  very  requisite  to  know  whether  or  not  any  means  were  taken  to  sus- 
tain the  stimulation,  without  which  the  primary  state  of  excitement  Avould  very 
soon  disappear  before  the  terrible  depression  caused  by  the  poison. 

The  remaining  instance  of  death  from  a  bite  given  to  an  intoxicated  man  is  the 
case  of  Adam  Lake,  reported  by  Dr.  Horner.  The  particulars  are  as  follows: 
The  patient  was  in  the  habit  of  drinking  daily  from  half  a  pint  to  one  pint  of 
alcoholic  liquors,  and,  as  was  seen  at  the  autopsy,  was  constitutionally  the  worse 
for  this  habit.  When  somewhat  intoxicated,  he  was  bitten  at  the  bend  of  the  arm, 
both  fangs  entering.  Some  time,  I  presume  at  least  two  or  three  hours,  passed  by 
before  he  sought  aid,  and  during  this  period  so  little  effect  was  produced  that  he  paid 
no  attention  to  the  wound  until  the  itching  annoyed  him.  From  this  time  he  was 
under  treatment,  the  arm  rapidly  swelling  and  becoming  painful.  Now,  Crotalus 
poison  may  produce  but  slight  local  effects,  but  when  it  is  in  such  amount  as  finally 
to  kill,  it  does  not  long  delay  the  exhibition  of  its  influence  on  the  system.  Yet  in 
this  person,  who  did  afterwards  die,  some  time  evidently  elapsed  without  any  con- 
stitutional expression  of  poisoning.  Was  this  reprieve  due  to  the  partial  intoxica- 
tion of  the  sufferer?  Whatever  answer  we  may  give,  it  is  quite  clear  that  this 
was  no  case  to  quote  against  the  use  of  stimulants,  since,  in  addition  to  what  I  have 
urged,  we  learn  yet  further  that  with  the  exception  of  a  little  ammonia  and  two 
half-ounce  doses  of  sp.  vin.  dilut.,  used  late  in  the  malady,  he  took  no  stimulants, 
and  "that  no  regular  effort  was  made  to  sustain  or  renew  the  primary  stimulation, 
which,  at  first,  had  so  guarded  his  system. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  physician  finds  it  impossible  to  produce  stimula- 
tion in  the  presence  of  so  potent  a  sedative  as  the  venom.  When  this  is  the  case, 
it  is  possible  that  absorption  does  not  occur  with  sufficient  rapidity,  or  at  all  events, 
that  cases  may  occur,  where  it  is  necessary  to  stimulate  fully  and  suddenly. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  would  recommend  inhalation  of  the  fumes  of  warm 
alcohol,  or  even  of  ether  if  used  with  caution. 

While  advocating  the  employment  of  stimuli  as  rational  therapeutic  means  of 
meeting  a  most  obvious  indication,  it  is  jDroper  to  admit  that  cases  have  been  and 
will  be  encountered,  in  which  the  dose  of  venom  has  been  so  great,  that  no  remedy 
is  of  any  avail.  Such,  however,  must  be  rare,  and  it  is  on  the  whole  more  than 
probable  that  the  danger  from  the  bite  of  the  Rattlesnake  has  been  over-estimated, 
and  that  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  patient  would  recover,  even  if  unassisted 
by  any  remedy. 

Where  stimulants  are  of  any  use,  the  patient  commonly  recovers  without  further 
difficulty.  In  some  cases,  howevei',  which  attain  to  the  stage  of  alteration  in  the 
blood,  we  have  to  deal  with  conditions  which  are  also  present  in  other  cases  of 


OF  THE  VENOM  OF  THE  RATTLESNAKE.  117 

putrefactive  poisoning,  but  for  wlijch  we  have  no  remedies  of  well  determined 
power.  Possibly,  tonics,  astringents,  and  continued  stimulation  might  be  of  some 
value  in  supporting  the  strength  until  the  blood  recovers  its  normal  condition. 

In  the  foregoing  brief  indication  of  my  views  as  to  the  proper  treatment  of  Cro- 
talus  bite,  I  have  endeavored  to  make  it  plain  that  in  the  absence  of  any  certain 
specific,  this  malady  should  be  treated  as  the  symptoms  dictate,  and  that  no  other 
guide  can.  be  safely  or  conscientiously  followed  in  the  present  condition  of  the 
therapeutics  of  this  mode  of  poisoning. 

It  would  be  improper  to  close  these  pages  without  repeating  that  I  have  given 
my  views  as  to  treatment,  in  the  briefest  and  most  condensed  manner,  and  that 
every  criticism  of  the  treatment  advised  by  others,  and  every  remedial  method 
recommended  by  mj'self,  rests  upon  the  authority  of  experiments  which  I  shall 
detail  at  length  on  a  future  occasion. 

I  sincerely  trust  that  the  publication  of  this  essay  may  induce  the  physicians  of 
this  country  to  study  more  zealously,  and  record  more  exactly,  every  case  of  snake 
poisoning  which  may  fall  under  their  notice,  since,  without  such  aid,  it  is  impossible 
for  the  most  ardent  student  to  do  justice  to  the  subject,  and  since  it  is  only  by  a 
large  accumulation  of  experience,  that  any  fair  appreciation  of  the  true  value  of 
remedies  can  be  attained. 


APPENDIX    A. 


AN  ENUMERATION  OF  THE  GENERA  AND  SPECIES  OF  RATTLESNAKES, 
WITH  SYNONYMY  AND  REFERENCES. 

By  E.  D.  cope. 


That  large  assemblage  of  serpents,  known  as  the  Viperidaa  of  Bonaparte,  Viperina 
of  Gray,  or  Solenoglyphes  of  Dumeril,  exhibits  the  most  perfect  degree  of  develop- 
ment of  those  points  of  structure  which  distinguish  all  venomous  serpents  from 
■  those  that  are  innocuous.  Of  the  subgroups  of  genera  and  species  contained  in  this 
"  famil}',"  or  "  suborder,"  none  is  more  truly  representative  than  that  denominated 
by  the  authors  just  mentioned,  Crotalina,  Crotalidas,  and  Crotaliens  respectively, 
and  which  is  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  deep  pit  in  the  maxillary  region, 
in  front  and  below  the  level  of  the  eye.  Preeminent  among  the  Crotalina  for  size, 
strength,  and  power  of  inflicting  injury,  are  those  species  in  which  the  tail  termi- 
nates in  a  jointed  corneous  appendage,  termed  the  rattle,  from  which  their  name 
of  Rattlesnakes  is  derived.  These  serpents  exhibit  two  types  of  form,  which  are 
distinguished  by  the  following  characters: — 

Anterior  part  of  the  top  of  the  head  covered  by  small  scales.  Cabpisona. 

Anterior  part  of  the  top  of  the  head  covered  by  nine  plates,  symmetrically  arranged.    Crotalus. 

In  the  following  pages  will  be  given  an  enumeration  of  the  species  of  these  two 
genera,  under  their  correct  names,  with  a  description  of  the  Gaudisona  horrida, 
the  species  which  has  been  the  subject  of  Dr.  Mitchell's  experiments. 

II. 

CAUDISONA  Laurenti. 

1168.  Caudisona  :  Laurenti,  Specimen  Synopsis  Reptilium,  p.  92. 

1189.  Crotalus:  Lacepede,  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Serpens,  II,  130.     Nee  Linnsei. 

1802.  "  Daudin,  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Reptiles,  V,  291. 

1811.  "  CuviER,  Rfegne  Animal,  II,  *l*l. 

1830.  "  Wagler,  Naturlich.  Syst.  der  Amphibien,  p.  116. 

1831.  "  ScHLEGEL,  Essai  sur  le  Physionomie  des  Serpens,  II,  555. 

1842.  "  Gray,  Zoological  Miscellany,  p.  51. 

1843.  "  FiTziNGER,  Systema  Reptilium,  p.  29.  * 
1849.           "          Gray,  Catal.  Brit.  Museum,  p.  19. 

1853.  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  1. 


120 


GENERA   AND    SPECIES    OP    THE    RATTLESNAKES. 


1854.  Crotalus :  Dumeeil,  Erp.  Generale,  YII,  1453. 

1830.  Uropsophus  :  "Wagler,  Natur.  Syst.  der  Amph.,  p.  176. 

1842.  "  Gray,  Zool.  Misc.,  p.  51. 

1843.  "  FiTziNGER,  Syst.  Rept.,  p.  29. 
1849.            "  Gray,  Cat.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  19. 

1843.  TJrocrotalon  :  Fitzi.\gee,  Systema  Reptilium,  p.  29. 

Caudisona  durissa. 

1V68.     Caudisona  durissa:  Laxjrenti,  Spec.  Syu.  Rept,  p.  93.     Esclus.  cit.  Catesb.  et  Habitat. 

1166.  Crotalus  durissus :  Linn^us,  Syst.  Nat.  Edit.,  XII,  I,  312.  Citatio  prima;  [Amoen.  Acad., 
I,  500,  1148.  Crotalo2Dhon(S  durissus,  descriptio  prima,  p.  501,  nee 
secunda'].  Citatio  tertia  falsa  ;  [_Seba  II,  95,  f.  2,  Gaud,  terrifica 
delineoAur']. 

1188.  "  "  var.  y.  Gmelin,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat,  I,  1081. 

1789.  "  "  Lacepede,  Hist  Nat   Serp.,  II,  423,  Excl.  cit  Laurenti.     Nee  "  Le  Du- 

rissus," tab.  sviii,  f.  3,  p.  390,  ubi  C.  liorrida  (hujus  enumerationis) 
delineatur. 

1790.  "  "  Bonnaterre,  Opliiologie,  p.  2. 
1817.           "              "  CuviER,  Rfegne  Animal,  II,  78. 

1820.  "  "  Merrem,  Syst.  Amphib.,  p.  156.     Homonyma  accurate  enumerata. 

1830.  "  "  Griffith,  Cuv.  Regne  Animal,  IX,  267. 

1853.  "  "  Le  Conte,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat  Sci.  Philada.,  1853,  416. 

1859.  "  "  Cope,  Proc.  A.  N.  S.,  p.  337.    Exclus.  homon.  C.  cascavella  Wagl.  etspec. 

"No.  3." 
1802.  "        horridus  :  Daudin,  Hist.  Nat  Rept,  V,  311.     Exclus.  cit  Linn.  Laurenti,  Lacepede. 

"  "  Wagler,  Nat  Syst.  Amph.,  p.  176.     Exclus.  homon.  C  cascavella  Wagl. 

1837.  "  "  ScHLEGEL,  Essai,  II,  561.     Exclus.  cit  Laurenti,  Wagler,  Neuwied. 

1854.  "  "  DrjiERiL,  BiBRON,  VII,  1472.     Exclus.  cit  Linn.  Wagl.  (in  Spix  Serp. 

Braz.),  Neuw.  ?Gray. 
Icones — ?Seba,  tab.  xlv,  4.    ?Bonnat,  tab.  iii,  f.  1.    Daudin,  V,  69,  I.    ?  Schlegel,  Essai,  tab.  xx, 

xii,  xiii,  xiv.     ?Dum.  Bibr.,  Ixxxiv,  bis,  2.     ??Cuv.  Regne  Animal  (Edit.  Audouin,  Blanch. 

etc.),  pi.  xxxii.     Diet.  Sci.  Nat.  Cloquet,  Poiss.  et  Rept,  t  xxiv. 
Habitat. — In  Guiana,  ?  Mexico. 


Excl.  fig.  1,  tab.  XVIII,  etcit 


Caudisona  terrifica. 

Laurenti,  Spec.  Syn.  Rept,  p.  93. 
Lacepede,  Hist.  Nat.  Serp.,  II,  130,  390. 

Kalm. 
Daudin,  Hist  Rept,  V,  321. 
:  Wagler,  Spix  Serp.  Braz.,  60. 
'  Daud  :"  Neuw.  Naturgeschichte  Brazil.,  p.  435. 

?Gray,  Catalogue  Brit  Mus.,  p.  20.    Exclus.  cit.  Linn.  Daudin,  Schlegel; 

et  homonym,  horridus,  adamanteus,  rhombifer,  Oregonus. 
BoiE,  Isis  von  Oken,  p.  562. 
Icon. — Seba,  xcv,  f.  I.     Spix  Serp.  Braz.,  xxiv.     Neuwied  Naturgeschichte  Braz.,  tab.  ? 
Habitat. — In  Brasilia,  Guiana. 


1768. 

Caudisona  terrifica : 

1789. 

Crotalus  boiquira : 

1802. 

"         simus : 

i824. 

"        cascavella 

1825. 

"         horridus  " 

1849. 

"               " 

1827. 

"         durissus : 

Caudisona  Loeflingii. 

1833.     Crotalus  Loeflingii:  Humboldt,  in  Humboldt  et  Bonpland,  Recueil  d'Observ.  de  Zoologie  et 
Anat  Comp.,  p.  6. 
Habitat. — In  Venezeula. 


GENERA    AND    SPECIES   OF    THE   RATTLESNAKES.  121 


Caudisona  adamantea. 

1799.  Crotalus  adamanteus:  Pal.  de  Beauvois,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc,  lY,  368. 

18i2.  "  "  HoLBROOK,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  17. 

1853.  "  "  Baikd  et  Gieard,  Catal.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  3. 

1853.  "  "  Le  Conte,  South.  Med.  and  Surg.  Journ.,  IX,  664. 

1790.  "  ?hoiTidus:  Bonnat.  Ophiologie,  p.  1.     Excl.  cit.  Linn.  Mus.  Ad.  Fried,  et  Tab. 

"1801.  "  rhombifer:  Latreiixe,  Hist.  Rept,  III,  197." 

1802.  "  "  Daudin,  Hist.  Rept.,  Y,  525. 

1854.  "  "  DmiERiL,  BiBRON,  Erp.  Gen.,  VII,  1471. 
1802.  "  durissus :  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.,  Ill,  333. 

1853.  "       temficus:  Le  Conte,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philada.,  VI,  419.     Exclus.  honion.  CawJi- 

sona  terrifica  Laur.,  p.  418. 
1859.  "  "         Cope,  Loc.  cit.,  p.  337.     Exclus.  homon.  terrifica  Laur. 

1842.     ?  Crotalus  Oregonus  :  Holbrook,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  IH,  21. 
1853.  "  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Cat.  Serp.,  p.  145. 

Icones.— ?  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.,  Ill,  t.  Ixxxix.   Daudin,  Hist.  Rept,  V,  pi.  Ix,  figs.  22,  23.   Holbrook, 

N.  Amer.  Herp.,  Ill,  t.  ii.     U.  S.  Pacific  R.  R.  Rept.  Reptiles,  tab.  xxiv,  f.  2. 
Habitat. — In  "United  States"  orientalibus  circa  oram  Maris  Mexican!  et  "South  Carolina,"  in 
America  Septentrionali. 

Caudisona  atrox. 

1853.     Crotalus  atrox:  Baird  et  GraARD,  Catal.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  5. 

1859.  "  "        Baird,  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Surv.  Reptiles,  p.  14.     TJ.  S.  Pacific  R.  R. 

Rept,  X.     Whipple's  Rept.,  p.  39. 
Icones.— TJ.  S.  and  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.  Reptiles,  t.  xxiv,  f.  3.     U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey, 

Reptiles,  t.  i. 
Habitat. — In  Texas. 

Caudisona  lucifer. 

1852.     Crotalus  lucifer:  Baird  et  Girard,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philada.,  p.  177,  et  (1853),  Cata- 
logue, p.  6. 

1858.  "  "        Girard,  Herpetology  U.  S.  Expl.  Exped.,  p.  187. 

1859.  "  "        Baird,  U.  S.  Pacif.  R.  R.  Report  N,  Williamson's  Report,  p.  10. 
1859.            "  "        Cooper  et  Suckley,  Nat.  Hist.  Wash.  Terr.,  p.  295. 

Icones. — U.  S.  Pac.  R  E.  Surv.  Rept.  Reptiles,  Williamson's  Rept  Reptiles,  tab.  xi.     Girard, 

Herp.  U.  S.  Ex.  Exp.,  tab.  xv,  figs.  1-6. 
Habitat. — In  Oregon,  California. 

Caudisona  Le  Contei. 

1852.  Crotalus  Le  Contei :  Hallowell,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat  Sci.  Philad.,  VI,  180. 

1853.  ■     "  "  "  Rept.  Exped.  Zuni  and  Colorado  Rivs.  Sitgreaves,  p.  139. 
1859.            "             "                     "  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  X,  Williamson's  Rept.,  p.  18. 
1853.            "       confluentus :    "  Say,"  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.  Serp.   Smiths.  Inst.,  p.   8.      Exclus. 

homon.  C.  coiifluentus  Say. 
1859.  "  ■"  Baird,  U.  S.  and  P.  R.  R.  Surv.  Rept,  Whipple's  Rept,  p.  40.     IJ.  S. 

and  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.  Reptiles,  p.  14. 
1859.  "  "  Cooper  et  Suckxet,  Nat.  Hist.  Wash.  Ter.,  p.  295. 

Icones. — Sitgreave's  Exped.  Colorado  and  Zuni,  tab.  xviii  (icon  pej.).     U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Surv. 
Rept.  Reptiles,  tab.  xxiv,  fig.  4.     DM.  Williamson's  Rept.  Reptiles,  tab.  iii.     Cooper  and 
Suckley,  Nat.  Hist.  Wash.  Terr.,  tab.'xii. 
Habitat — In  Nebraska  usque  ad  "  Rocky  Mountains,"  Texas  et  "New  Mexico." 
16 


122 


GENERA    AND    SPECIES    OF   THE    RATTLESNAKES. 


Caudisona  confluenta. 

1823.     Crotaliis  coufluentus  :  S.\Y,  Long's  Exped.  Rocky  Mts.,  II,  48. 
Icon. — Nulla. 
Habitat. — "Red  River,"  circa  foutes. 

Caudisona  tigris. 

1869.     Crotalus  tigris:  Kennicott,  U.  S.  et  Max.  Boundary  Surv.,  II,  Reptiles,  p.  14. 
Icon. — Loc.  cit.,  tab.  iv. 
Habitat. — In  Eremis  Gila  et  Colorado,  "New  Mexico." 

Caudisona  lugu^bris. 

1859.     Crotalus  lugubris :  Jan,  Rev.  et  Mag.  de  Zoologie,  p.  156. 

Icon. — Jan  Prodrome  d'un  Iconogr.  Descr.  Ophid.,  tab.  E,  f.  4. 
Habitat. — In  Mexico. 

Caudisona  horrida. 

1166.  Crotalus  horridus :  LiNNaitJS,  Syst.  Nat.  Ed.  XII,  I,  512.  Primo  cit.  Mus.  Ad.  Er.,  I,  39,  nbi 
"Frons  tecta  squamis  obtusissimis,  palpebras  superiores  planse  magnae" 
legatur.  Porro  Catesby  Carol.  Hist.  (A)  et  Amoenitat.  Acad.  (B)  citantur. 
(A.  "Vijpera  caudisona  americana,"  et  "V.  c.  a.  minor"  describuntur,  pp. 
41,  42;  sed  "V.  c.  a.  minor  cajjuf  scutis  magnis  instructum  habet."^) 
(B.  In.  Amoen.  Acad.,  II,  139.  G.  durissa  {hujus  enumerationis) 
(Amoen.  Acad.,  I,  500)  citatur!  et  "  Virginianis  rattlesnake"  denomi- 
natur !)     Secundo  cit.  Seba,  95,  f.  1,  ubi  C.  terrifica  delineatur  I ! 

1802.  "  "  Shaw,  Gen.  Zool.,  Ill,  311. 

1811.  "  "  CuviER,  Regne  Animal,  II,  18. 

1830.  "  "  Gray,  Synopsis  Rept.,  p.  18. 

?1830.  "  "  GuERiN,  Iconogr.  R.  Anim.,  tab.  n.  23,  f.  2. 

1831.  "  "  Griffith,  Cuv.  Regne  Animal,  IX,  2I»1. 

1853.  -    "  "          Le  Conte,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Soi.  Philada.,  VI,  411. 

1859.  "  "          Cope,  Proc.  Acad.  Philada.,  p.  338. 

"1801,  "  durissus:  Latreille,  Hist.  Rept.,  Ill,  190." 

1802.  "  "          Daudin,  Hist.  Rept.,  V,  304.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn.  Laurenti,  Lacep. 

1825.  "  "          Harlan,  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philada.,  p.  368.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn.  Laar. 

Ibid.  Med.  and  Phys.  Res.,  p.  132. 

1831.  "  "          ScHLEGEL,  Essai  sur  le  Phys.  Serp.,  II,  365.    E.xclus.  descrip.  color.,  p.  366, 

et  homon.  UropsopJms  trisei'iatiis  Wagl.  et  C7-ot.  confiuentiis  Say. 

1839.  "  "          Storer,  Report,  Rept.  Mass.,  p.  233. 

1842.  "  "          HoLBROOK,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  9.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn. 

1842.  "  "          De  Kat,  Zoology  of  New  York,  pt.  Ill,  55.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn.  Say. 

1853.  "  "          Le  Conte,  Southern  Med.  and  Surg.  Journ.,  p.  663. 

1853.  "  ■  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  1.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn. 

1854.  "  "  Baird,  Serpents  of  New  York,  p.  9.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn. 

1854.  "  "  DuMERiL  et  Bibron,  Erp.  Gen.,  VII,  1465.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn.  Latreille, 

Wagler. 
1859.  "  "  Baird,  IJ.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Espl.  Surv.,  X.     Whipple's  Rept.  Reptiles,  p.  39. 

Exclus.  cit.  Linn. 
1859.  "  "  ?  Jan,  Rev.  et  Mag.  de  Zool.,  p.  153. 


'  Linnaeus  Syst.  Nat.,  in  C.  miliarii  diagnosi. 


GENERA    AND    SPECIES   OF    THE    RATTLESNAKES.  123 

"1801.  Crotalus  atricaudatus  :  Latrehle,  Hist.  Rept.,  Ill,  209." 

1827.  "  "  ?BoiE,  Isis  von  Oken,  p.  562. 

1830.  "  "  ?Wagler,  Nat.  Syst.  Amphib.,  p.  m. 

1842.  "  "  Gray,  Zool.  Miseell.,  p.  51. 

1843.  Urocrotalon  durissus :  Fitzinger,  Syst.  Rept.,  p.  29. 

1849.     Uropsoplius  durissus:  Gray,   Catal.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  19.     Exclus.  cit.  Linn,  et  homon.  confiu- 

entus  Say,  rliombifer  Latr.,  triseriatus  Wiegm.  Wagl.  Gray. 
1826.     ?  Crotalus  Catesbaei  Hempr. :  Fitzinger,  Neue  Class,  p.  63,  fide  Gray. 
1851.     ?Urocrotalon  Catesbyanum  Fitz. :  Diesing,  Syst.  Helminth.,  II,  431. 

Icones. — Catesby,  Hist.  Car.,  II,  tab.  slii.  Lacepede,  Serp.,  II,  tab.  xviii,  f  3.  Shaw.  Zool. 
Ill,  t.  Ixxxviii.  Daudin,  Y,  t.  Ixviii.  Guerin,  Iconogr.  R.  Animal,  t.  xxiii,  f.  2.  Schlegel, 
Essai,  XX,  f.  15,  16.  Diet.  Univ.  Hist.  Nat.  Atlas,  II,  t.  xiii,  f.  1.  Dum.  Bibr.  Erp.  Gen. 
Atlas,  t.  Ixxxiv,  bis.  fig.  1.  Holbrook,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  t.  i.  De  Kay,  Zool.  New  York, 
pt.  Ill,  Atlas,  fig.  19.  Baird,  Serp.  New  York,  t.  i,  f.  1.  TJ.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Expl.  Rep. 
X,  Reptiles,  t.  xxiv,  fig.  1. 
Habitat. — In  "United  States"  orientalibus,  usque  ad  "The  Plains." 

This  species  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  peculiarities  : — 

Upon  the  top  of  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  there  are  two  subtriangular  shields 
(prefrontals)  in  contact  with  each  other.  A  large  oval  shield  covers  the  region 
over  each  eye  (superciliary).  These  shields  are  in  contact  anteriorly  upon  each 
side  with  a  smaller  one,  which  is  in  contact  anteriorly  with  the  prefrontal,  and 
forms  upon  each  side,  the  external  shield  of  a  cross  series  (post-frontals)'  imme- 
diately behind  the  prefrontals,  which  is  usually  composed  of  five  plates.  The 
remaining  part  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  covered  with  small  subtuber- 
culous  scales. 

The  shields  bounding  the  upper  lip  (superior  labials)  are  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
in  number,  the  fourth  or  fifth  the  largest ;  those  bounding  the  lower  lip  (inferior 
labials)  thirteen  to  fifteen.  Three  rows  of  scales  separate  the  eye  from  the  supe- 
rior labials.  Two  plates  in  front  of  the  eye  (preoculars),  the  lower  usually  reach- 
ing the  pit  in  the  side  of  the  face;  the  upper  larger,  and  separated  from  the 
hinder  of  the  two  plates  between  which  the  nostril  is  pierced  (nasals),  by  two  or 
more  small  plates  (loreals).  The  scales  of  the  body  are  in  twenty-three  or  twenty- 
five  longitudinal  rows,  all  keeled,  the  row  on  each  side  next  the  shields  of  the  ab- 
domen (gastrostega)  faintly. 

The  ground  color  above  varies  from  bright  yellowish  tawny  or  fulvous  to  black 
brown ;  beneath  from  whitish  yellow  to  black  gray.  A  light  line  extends  from  the 
superciliary  plate  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  behind  which  is  a  dark  band  or  blotch. 
Upon  each  side  of  the  medial  dorsal  line  there  are  two  series  of  brown  or  black 
spots.  The  spots  of  the  upper  or  medial  series  are  larger,  rhomboid,  running 
obliquely  upwards  and  backwards.  They  are  frequently  confluent  across  the 
middle  line  of  the  back  anteriorly;  always  upon  the  posterior  half  of  the  body. 
The  spots  of  the  lower  series  encroach  slightly  upon  the  gastrostega,  and  poste- 
riorly, unite  with  those  of  the  middle  series,  to  form  zigzag  cross  bands.  Ante- 
riorly they  sometimes  alternate  with  the  central  series,  or  rather  become  confluent 
with  an  indefinite  alternating  series,  and  joining  the  extremities  of  the  former, 
enclose  the  ground  color,  which  thus  forms  a  series  of  light  spots.  Of  these  trans- 
verse bands  or  rows  of  spots  there  are  twenty-one,  more  or  less,  from  the  head  to 


124  GENERA    AND    SPECIES    OP    THE    RATTLESNAKES. 

the  anus.  In  southwestern  specimens,  a  narrow  rufous  band  frequently  extends 
along  the  median  dorsal  line  throughout  the  whole  length.  Tail  nearly  always 
entirely  black. 

This  species  is  found  from  Maine  to  Kansas,  and  from  Louisiana  to  Florida. 

Caudisona  molossus. 

1853.  Crotalus  molossns:  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.  Rept.  Smiths.  Inst,  p.  10. 
1859.  "  "  Baird,  U.  S.  et  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.  Reptiles,  p.  14. 

1854.  "       ornatus:  Hallowell,  Proc.  A.  N.  S.  Philada.,  VII,  192,  etc. 

1859.  "  "  "  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Expl.  Rept,  Parlie's  Rept  Reptiles,  p.  23. 
Iconjes. — U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept  Reptiles,  xxiv,  f.  5.     Ibid.,  Parke's  Rept.,  tab.  ii.     U.  S.  and 

Mex.  Bound.  Surv.,  tab.  iii. 
Habitat — In  "New  Mexico." 

Caudisona  lepida. 

1860.  Caudisona  lepida  :  Kennicott,  MSS. 
Icon. — Nulla. 

Habitat. — In  Texas  australi. 

Caudisona  cerastes. 

1854.     Crotalus  cerastes :  Hallowell,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philada.,  p.  95. 

1859.  "  "  "  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  E.xpl.  Rept  Williamson's  Rep.  Rept,  p.  n. 

1859.  "  "         Baird,  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.  Reptiles,  p.  14. 

Icon. — U.  S.'et  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.,  pi.  iii. 

Habitat. — In  Eremis  Colorado  et  Gila. 


CROTALUS  LiNNiEUS. 

1766.  Crotalus :  LiNNiEus,  Syst  Nat  Ed.,  XII,  312. 
1T88.  "  Gmelin,  Syst  Nat.,  I,  1080. 

1T90.  "  BoNNATERRE,  Ophiologie,_p.  1. 

1820.  "  Merrem,  Tent  Syst  Amphib.,  p.  156. 

1827.  "  BoiE,  Isis,  p.  562. 

1825.  Crotalophorus :  Gray,  Ann.  Philosophy,  p.  205. 
1849.  "  "      Cat  Brit  Mus.,  p.  lY. 

1842.  "  HoLBROOK,  N.  Amer.  Herp.,  Ill,  25. 

1853.  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Cat.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  11. 

1826.  Caudisona:  Fitzinger,  Neue  Class.  Rept.,  p.  63. 
1830.  "  Wagler,  Nat  Syst.  Amphib.,  p.  ITB. 
1832.            "  Bonaparte,  Saggio,  p.  24. 

1842.  "  Gray,  Zool.  Misc.,  p.  51. 

1843.  "  Fitzinger,  Syst  Rept,  p.  29. 

Crotalus  miliarius. 

1766.  Crotalus  miliarius :  Linn^us,  Syst  Nat  Ed.,  XII,  v.  I,  372. 
1188.  "  "  Gmelin,  Linn.  S.  N.,  I,  1080. 

1789.  "  "  Laoepede,  Hist.  Serp.,  II,  421. 

1190.  "  "  Bonnaterre,  Ophiol.,  p.  1. 


GENERA   AND    SPECIES  OF   THE   RATTLESNAKES. 


125 


1802.     Crotalus  miliarius :  Shaw,  III,  336. 

1802.  "  "  Daudin,  Hist.  Rept.,  V.  328. 

1817.  "  "  CuviER,  Regne  Animal,  II,  T9. 

1820.  "  "  Merrem,  Syst.  Amphib.,  p.  156. 

182T.  "  "  BoiE,  Isis,  p.  562. 

]83'7.  "  "  ScHLEGEL,  Essai,  II,  569.     Exclus.  homon.  C.  tergeminus  B&j. 

1854.  "  "  DuMERiL,  BiBRON,  Erp.  Gen.,  YII,  lill. 

1825.  Crotalophorus  miliarius  :  Gray,  Ann.  Philos.,  p.  205. 
1830.  "  "  "      in  Griff.  Regne  Anim.,  p.  Y8. 
1842.                 "                  "          HoLBROOK,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  p.  25. 
1849.                 "                  "          Gray,  Catalogue  Brit.  Mas.,  p.  IT. 

1853.  "  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Cat.  Serp.  Smiths.  Inst.,  p.  11. 

1859.  "  "  Baird,  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Bxpl.  Rep.,  X.     Whipple's  Rept.,  p.  40. 

1826.  Caudisona  miliaria  :  Fitzingee,  Neue  Class.,  p.  63. 
1830.  "  "  Wagler,  Nat.  Syst.  Amph.,  p.  176. 

1842.  "  "  Gray,  Zool.  Misc.,  p.  51. 

1843.  "  "  FiTziNGER,  Syst.  Rept.,  p.  29. 

Icones. — Catesby,  Hist.  Car.,  II,  t.  xlii.  ?Bonnaterre,  Ophiologie,  t.  i,  f.  1.  Schlegel,  Essai, 
t.  XV,  f.  11,  18.  Holbrook,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  t.  It.  Bum.  Bibr.  Erp.  Gen.,  Ixxxiv,  bis.  f. 
5.     U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Surv.  Rept,  X,  Reptiles,  t.  xxiv,  f. 

Habitat. — In  "United  States"  circa  oram  maris  Mexicaui,  "South  Carolina,"  et  Arkansas. 


Crotalus  Ed-wardsii. 

1853.  Crotalophorus  Edwardsii :  BAmD  et  Giraed,  Catal.,  p.  15. 

1854.  "  "  DuMERii,  BiBRON,  Erp.  Gen.,  VII,  1483. 
1859.                 "                 "  Baird,  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.,  p.  15. 

Icones. — U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Expl.  Rept.,  X,  Reptiles,  tab.  xxiy,  fig.  8.     U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound. 

Surv.,  t.  V,  f.  1. 
Habitat. — In  Texas. 


Crotalus  tergeminus. 

1823.  Crotalus  tergeminus  :  Say,  Long's  Exped.  Rocky  Mts.,  I,  499. 

1824.  "  "  BoiE,  Isis,  p.  270. 

1827.  "  "  Harlan,  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  V,  372. 

1827.  "  "  BoiE,  Isis,  p.  563. 

1854.  "  "  DUMERIL,  BiBRON,  VII,  1479. 

1830.  Crotalophorus  tergeminus :  Gray,  Synops.  Rept.,  p.  78. 

1842.  "  "  Holbrook,  N.  Amer.  Herp.,  Ill,  p.  29. 

1849.  "  "  Gray,  Cat.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  18. 

1856.  "  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.,  p.  14. 

1842.  "  Kirtlandii :  Holbrook,  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  31. 

1849.  "  "  Gray,  Cat.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  18. 

1853.  "  "  Baird  et  Girard,  Catal.,  p.  16. 

1854.  "  massasauga  "Kirtland:"  Baird,  Serpents  of  New  York,  p.  11. 

1850.  "  ?  Agassiz,  Lake  Superior,  p.  381. 
1830.  Caudisona  tergeminus:  Wagler,  Nat.  Syst.  Amph.,  p.  176. 

Icones. — Holbr.  N.  Am.  Herp.,  Ill,  f.  5,  6,     Agassiz,  Lake  Superior,  t.  vi,  f.  8.     Baird,  Serp. 

New  York,  t.  i,  f.  2.     Ibid.  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Expl.  Rep.,  X,  Rept.,  t.  xxv,  fig.s.  9,  11. 
Habitat.— In  "Indian  Territory,"  Nebraska,  usque  ad  Michigan  et  Ohio. 


126  GENERA   AND    SPECIES    OP   THE    RATTLESNAKES. 


III. 

The  descriptions  of  the  following  supposed  species  do  not  coincide  with  those 
of  any  species  known  to  modern  naturalists  : — 

Crotalus  dryinus:  Linn^us,  Syst.  Nat.,  I,  312  (1766).     Quoted  by  Gmeliu,  Lacepede,  Bonuaterre, 

Daudin,  Merrem. 
Crotalus  Jiorridus:  Boddaert,  Nova  Acta,  VII,  16  (178.3).     Quoted  by  Gmelin,  Le  Conte. 

The  following  names  refer  to  species  which  I  cannot  identify  with,  or  distinguish 
from  known  species  either  on  account  of  want  of  specimens,  imperfect  descriptions, 
or  references  which  cannot  be  unravelled. 

Crotalus  adamanteus :  Jan,  Rev.  et  Mag.  ZooL,  1859,  p.  153. 

Crotalus  atricaudatus :  Merrem,  Syst.  Amphib.,  157. 

Crotalus  cumanensis:  Humboldt,  Hurnb.  et  Bonpl.  Recueil  d'Observ.,  p.  6  (1833). 

Crotalus  durissus:  Boddaert,  1.  c.  Merrem,  1.  c. 

"  "  var.  a  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.,  I,  1081  (1788). 

Crotalus  exalbidus :  Boddaert,  1.  c. 

Crotalus  Jiorridus:  Jan,  Rev.  et  Mag.  ZooL,  1859,  153. 

Crotalus  rhombifer:  Merrem,  1.  c. 

Caudisona  orientalis:  Laurenti,  Synops.,  p.  94  {11^9,).  =  Crotalus  sti-epitans  Daud.,  V,  318  (1802). 
"  Said  to  be  Boa  canina."  Gray,  Synopsis  Rept,  p.  78. 

Caudisona  Gronovii:  Laurenti,  1.  c.     Perhaps  Lacliesis  mutus,  Daud. 

Uropsophus  triseriatus:  Waglee,  Nat.  Syst.  Amph.,  p.  176  (1830).  Gray,  Cat.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  116. 
Perhaps  Caudisona  lucifer.  Prof.  Jan.  Iconogr.  descr.  Opliid.,  p.  29,  places  this  species  in  Cro- 
talus (  Grotalophorus)  1 

Crotalopliorus  consors:  Baird  and  Girard,  1.  c.  Baird,  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.  Reptiles,  p.  15. 
Ibid.  U..S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Espl.  Rep.,  X,  Repl.,  pi.  xxiv,  f.  7. 

The  following  supposed  species,  according  to  Boie,  Isis,  1827,  562,  is  Tropido- 
notus  quincunciatus  with  a  crepitaculum  of  a  Rattlesnake  attached : — 
Crotalus  tessellatus :  Hermann,  Observat.  Zool.,  p.  271  (1804). 

The  following  species  are  not  Rattlesnakes : — 

Crotalus  mutus:  Linn^us,  1.  c.  p.  373  et  Gmelin,  is  Lachesis  mutus,  Daud. 

Crotalus piscivorus :  Lacepede,  1.  c.  p.  424  (1789)=  C.  aquaticus,  Bonnat.  1.  c.  p.  3  (1790),  is  A^icis- 
trodon  piscivorus,  nobis. 


APPENDIX  B, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.^ 


Abbatius  (Baldus  Angelus).  De  Admirabili 
Yiperas  natura  et  de  mirificis  ejus  facultati- 
bus  liber.     Ragusse,  158T-91,  ia  4. 

Anatomical  description  principally  of  the  or- 
gans of  Generation.   [S.] 
AcRELL    (JoH.  Gust.).     De   morsura  Serpentum. 
(Linusei  Amoenitacad.,  VI.,  97.   1162,  in  8.) 
An  excellent  dissertation  on  the  bite  of  ven- 
omous Sei-pents.  [S.] 
Albertus  Magnus.     Opus  animalium.      In  fol. 
1651. 

Reports  certain  erroneous  opinions  as  to  tlie 

viper,  and  denies  its  cohabitation  with  the 

Lamprey.   [S.] 

Aldovrandus  (Ulysses).     Serpentum  et  Draco- 

num  liistoria,  libr.   11.     Francforti,  in  fol. 

1640. 

Gives  descrijjtions  of  the  viper,  etc.,  with 
figvires.  [S.] 
Alessandrini.  Ricerche  sulle  glandoli  salivali  dei 
Serpenti  a  denti  solcati  o  veleniferi  confron- 
tate  con  quelle  proprie  delle  specie  non  vele- 
nate  di  Schlegel.  (Journ.  polygr.  de  "Verone, 
fasc.  XXVIII,  47,  18.32.)  [S.] 

Alexander.  Medica  commentaria.  Edinburgh, 
n,  decad.  IV,  B.,  45.  [S.] 

On  the  employment  of  L'eau  de  Luce  as  a 
remedy.  [S.] 

Alexander,  J.  B.  Alcohol  as  an  antidote.  St. 
Louis  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal,  XIII,  116, 
1855. 

Alos,  (JoH.)  Dissertatio  de  Viperis.  In  4,  1664. 
Treats  of  medicines  made  from  the  flesh  of 
the  viper.  [S.] 

Amatus  Ltjsitanxis.  Curationum  medicarum  cen- 
turias.  Cent.  I.  cur.  I,  fol.  20.  Cent.  Ill, 
cur.  14,  fol.  230.  [S.] 


Andeieux.  Coup  d'oeil  sur  les  accidents  causes 
par  la  morsure  des  serpents  venimeux,  enu- 
meration des  differents  moyens  employes  pour 
les  combattre.  Journ.  des  Conn.  Med.  et 
Pharm.,  181.  1849. 

On  the  action  of  Mikania  Guaco  in  snake 

bites.  [S.] 

Anel.     Art  de  sucer  les  playes  sans  se  servir  de  la 

bouche   d'un   homme.     Amsterdam,   1707. 

[S.] 
Angelini  (Bernardino).     Del  morasso  a  Vipera 

chersea  rinvenuto   sul   territorio  Veronese. 

(Bibl.  Ital.,  VII,  451.)    [S.] 

Anselmier  (Victor).  Dissertation  sur  les  indica- 
tions du  cautere  actuel  dans  les  plaies  viru- 
lentes  et  envenimees.  (Theses  de  Paris, 
No.  CXXIX),  1854. 

Reports  two  successful  cases  of  persons  bitten 
by  vipers ;  the  actual  cautery  the  best  mode 
of  local  treatment.  [S.] 

AEETj5;trs.  De  causis  et  signis  acutorum  morbo- 
rum.  (Ed.  Haller),  libr.  II,  cap.  II,  100, 
in  8,  1772. 

Speaks  of  the  effect  of  the  bite  of  the  Dipsade 
and  of  the  employment  of  theriao  as  a  re- 
medy for  the  bite  of  the  viper  (136).   [S.] 

Atchison,  T.  A.  Alcohol  as  an  antidote  to  the 
venom  of  the  Crotalus.  Southern  Journal  of 
the  Med.  and  Phys.  Sciences,  I,  p.  47,  1853. 

Atwell  (Joseph).  Observations  concerning  a 
man  and  a  woman  bitten  by  a  viper. 
(Philos.  Trans.  No.  CCCCLXIV,  275, 
1736.)  [S.] 

Reports  good  results  from  the  employment  of 

oil  in  viper  bites.  [S.] 

AtTDOUX.     Observations  communiquees  a  M.  Ma- 


'  As  a  general  rule,  the  authorities  upon  the  natural  history  of  serpents  are  not  included  in  the  list.  For  those 
especially  concerning  the  Rattlesnake,  see  Mr.  Cope's  "Genera  and  Species,"  p.  119.  The  works  given  by  Soubeiran 
in  his  excellent  Bibliography  are  marked  in  mine  with  the  letter  [S]. 


128 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


sars  cle  Cazeles.     (Jour,  dc  Med.,  XXXII, 

442.) 

Reports  a  case  of  viper  bite  treated  by  applica- 
tions of  tlie^brnised  head  of  the  viper,  togetlier 
with  theriac  and  a  vinous  decoction  of  the 
flesh  of  the  viper  and  of  the  bark  of  the  ash 
tree.     Recovery  in  three  days.  [S.] 

Auzoux  (L.  I.  I.).  Dissertation  sur  la  Vip6re. 
(Thfeses  de  Paris,  No.  CLXII),  1822. 

This  work  gives  a  general  statement  of  know- 
ledge relative  to  the  viper.  [S.] 

AviCENNE.  Canon  Medicinas  ex  Gerardi  Cremo- 
nensis  versione.  In  fol.  II,  libr.  IV,  fen.  6, 
tract  3,  Venetiis,  1608.  De  regimine  mor- 
sionis  universali.  Et  de  effngatione  veneno- 
sorum  et  de  curatione  mordicationis  Ser- 
pentum  et  speciebus  eorum. 

Treats  of  the  venom  of  the  viper  and  of  the 

treatment  of  snake-bites.  [S.] 

Bajon.     Memoire  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  Cay- 
enne.    Maladies  de  Cayenne,  I,  352-355. 
States  that  the  juice  of  the  Tayove  (  Caladium 
sagittsefolium')  and  sugar,  are  useful  in  snake- 
bites.  [S.] 

Babicelh.  Falsum  viperam  in  coitu  masculum 
occidere,  ipsumque  a  catulis  in  partu  necari. 
Hortulus  genialis  BononiiB,  in  12mo,  161T. 
[S.] 

Barstow.  Account  of  the  singular  effects  from 
the  bite  of  a  Rattlesnake.  Philadelphia 
Med.  Museum,  III,  61. 

The  milk  of  a  woman  bitten  by  a  rattlesnake, 
said  to  have  caused  the  death  of  her  child,  as 
well  as  of  two  puppies  and  three  lambs  em- 
ployed to  draw  off  the  milk. 

Barton  (B.  S.).  On  the  supposed  powers  of 
Fascination  in  serpents.  [0.]  Pamphlet, 
Phila.,  1814.  Also,  the  same  in  American 
Phil.  Trans.,  Ill,  1793.  Also,  General  Ob- 
servations on  the  Rattlesnake.  Am.  Phil. 
Trans.,  IV,  IT 99. 

Bartram.  On  the  teeth  of  the  Crotalus.  Engl. 
Phil.  Trans.,  abrd.  IX,  60,  1793. 

Bauderon,  Brice.  Pharmocopee  diusee  en  deux 
liures,  p.  360,  in  4,  Lion,  1640.  [S.] 

Batjquier  (de  Saint  Ambroix).  Observation 
d'une  morsure  de  vipere.  Journ.  de  Sci. 
Med.,  XXVIII,  37Y,  1827.  [S.] 

Batjregard.  Anc.  Journ.  de  Med.,  VI,  233, 
1757. 

A  case  of  viper  bite  treated  successfully  with 
the  juice  of  ash  leaves,  and  poultices  of  the 
same,  as  local  treatment.   [S.] 


Beck.     Medical  Jurisprudence,  II,  537. 

Berard.     Gazette  de  Sant(i,  No.  16,  1788. 

Advises  frictions  with  olive  oil  in  viper  bites. 
[S.] 

Bernard  (Claude).  Lecons  surles  effets  des  sub- 
stances toxiques  et  medicamenteuses,  Paris, 
1857,  p.  388  et  seq. 

Brief  account  of  viper  venom.  Experiments 
to  prove  the  power  of  the  viper  to  destroy  its 
own  kind. 

Berninck  (A.).      Dissertatio    serpentem    sistens 

PriKs.  S.  F.  Freuzel.     In  4to.  Wittebergte, 

1665.  [S.] 
Bertin  (J.  E.).     Ergo  specificum  vipersB  morsus 

antidotum  aleali  volatile.     Paris,  149,  in  4. 

Haller,  dissert.,  p.  vi.  No.  218.  [S.] 

Best  (J.  Ch.).  Dissertation  sur  la  morsure  de  la 
vipere  fer-de-lance.  Thfeses  de  Paris,  No. 
106,  1823. 

Treats  of  the  cause  of  death,  and  thinks  that 
fright  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  produc- 
tion and  intensity  of  the  symptoms.  [S.] 

Blainville.  Observations  on  Crotalus  Poisoning. 
Bull. "  de  la  Societe  Philomatique,  Paris, 
1825,  p.  210.   [S.] 

Boag  (W.).  General  observations  on  the  bites  of 
E.  Indian  serpents.  Asiatic  Researches, 
VI,  103,  1801. 

BocHART  (S.A.MUEL).  Hierozoicon,  sive  de  ani- 
malibus  scripturse  recensuit  suis  notis,  L.  F. 
C.  RosenmuUer,  in  4,  III,  pars  ii,  lib.  iii, 
1793-96. 

Gives  the  etymology  of  the  word  viper,  proves 
that  it  was  known  to  the  Hebrews,  and  cites 
many  oriental  authorities,  &c.,  which  make 
mention  of  the  animal  in  question. 

Bonaparte  (Lucien).  Gaz.  Tosc.  delle  sc.  medi- 
cofis,  p.  169,  1843. 

Analysis  of  viper  venom,  the  only  one  on 
record. 
Bosc  (L.  a.  G).     Vipere  Nov.  Diet,  d'histoire  Nat. 
Deterville,  XXXVI,  82,  1819. 

Natural  history  of  the  viper,  with  discussions 
as  to  its  habits.  [S.] 

BouE  (J.  F.).     Dissertation  sur  la  morsure  de  la 
vipere.     Theses  de  Paris,  No.  69,  1823. 
Advances  cases  to  prove  the  gravity  of  the 
malady  of  the  viper  bite.  {S  ] 

Bodrdelot  (Pierre  Miohon).  Recherches  et  ob- 
servation sur  les  viperes.  Paris,  in  12mo., 
also  in  English,  Philos.  Trans.,  VI,  3013, 
1671.  [S.] 

Boyle  (Robert).     De  utilitate  philosophiaa  expe- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


129 


rimentalis.     Pars  II,  Esercitat,  II,  par  34 

Lindaviffi,  1  in  4to,  1692. 

Eeports  cures  from  using  a  hot  iron,  wliicli 
was  brought  as  near  to  the  wound  as  it  could 
he  borne  by  the  patient.   [S.  ] 

Brainaed  (David,  M.  D.).     On  the  nature  and 
cure  of  the  bite  of  serpents,  and  the  wounds 
-    of  poisoned  arrows.     Smithsonian  Reports, 
1854,  p.  123. 

Describes  woorara,  and  considers  that  it  owes 
its  poisoning  power  to  a  venom.     Advocates 
the  use  of  iodine  as  an  antidote  to  be  injected 
into  and  about  the  track  of  the  wounds  made 
by  serpents  or  by  poisoned  arrows. 
Brainard  (David).     Essay  on  a  new  method  of 
treating  serpent  bites  and   other   poisoned 
wounds.     8vo.  pamphlet,  Cliicago,  1854. 
Much  the  same  as  the  last  paper  (vide  supra), 
with  new  observations  on  the  phenomena  of 
crotalophorous  poisoning. 
Brainard  and  Green.    Comptes  Rendus  de  I'Aca- 
demie  des  Sciences,  p.  811,  1853. 

Contains  details  of  obseiTations  on  the  use  of 
iodine  in  woorara  poisoning  and  in  snake-bites . 

Breintnal  (C).   Engl.  Philosophical  Trans,  abrd., 
X,  229. 

Reports  his  own  case  of  Crotalus  bite. 
Brickell.     New  York  Medical  Repository,  Yin, 
441,  1805. 

Gives  his  own  experiments  upon  the  reaction 
of  Rattlesnake  venom. 
Brogiano  (Domenico).     De  Veneno  Animantium 
naturali  et  adquisito,  p.  38,  4to. 

An  extremely  interesting  dissertation  on  the 

effects  of  viper  venom  upon  the  economy  of 

man. 

Brotonne  (De).     Ergo  specificum  viperte  morsus 

an tidotum  alcali  volatile.    Paris,  1718.  [S.] 

Bulletin  de  Therapeutique,  XXXI,  70,  1846. 

Case  of  viper  bite  successfully  treated  by  am- 
monia.  [S.] 
Burnett  (W.  I.).  Proc.  Boston  Nat.  Hist.  Society, 
IV,  311,  323. 

On  the  succession  of  the  fangs  in  Crotalus, 

describes  his  mode  of  procuring  the  venom  by 

chloroforming  the  snake  and  then  pressing  on 

the  glands.     Also  observation  of  the  effect 

produced  by  mingling  the  venom  with  blood. 

Burton  (Wiliiam).     Letter  concerning  the  Yiper 

Catchers,  and  their  Remedy  for  the  Bite  of  a 

Yiper.   (Engl.  Phil.  Trans.,  No.  443,  1734.) 

Reports  experiments  tried  on  a  man  to  show 

the  utility  of  olive  oil  in  viper  bites.  [S.] 

Camerartjs   (Elias).     Dissertationes   Epistolico 

physico  medicae.     Tubingen,  1712,  m.  2. 

He  seeks  to  prove  that  the  viper  is  not  equally 

venomous  in  all  localities,  and  cites  facts  to 

support  this  opinion.   [S.] 

17 


Cantor.     London  Zoological  Trans.,  II,  304. 

On  Pelagic  snakes.   Action  of  their  venom  on 
the  tortoise,  etc. 
Cardose.     Des  effets  d'une  piqure  faite  par  la  dent 
d'une  vipere  morte.     Anuales  de  la  Soc.  de 
Med.  pratique  de  Montpellier,  serie  II,  I, 
179.   [S.] 
Carminati  (B.).    Saggi  di  osservazioni  sui  veneno 
della  vipera.    Opusc.  scelti,  I,  58,  1778.  [S.] 
Catesby.    Natural  History  of  Carolina ;  also  cited 
by  Mortimer,  Engl.  Phil.  Trans.,  1738,  p.  8. 
Advises  the  actual  cautery  as  a  remedy  in 
snake-bites.      Early  natural  history  of  the 
Rattlesnake,  etc. 
Cauro.     Exposition  du  moyen  curatif  des  acci- 
dents produits  par  la  morsure  de  I'Arraignee 
13  guttata  on  Theridion  mal  mignatte  du 
department  de  la  Corse,  suivi  de  quelques 
reflexions  sur  le  mode  d'agir  de  son  venin 
et  de  celui  de  la  vipfere,  in  4to.     Theses  de 
Paris,  No.  128,  1833. 

Proposes  a  secret  remedy,  camphor  and  opium, 
which  he  describes  as  useful  in  spider  bites, 
and  which,  therefore,  he  presumes  would  be 
valuable  in  those  of  the  viper.   [S.] 
Caventou.     Relation  de   quelques   nouvelles  ex- 
periences faites  par   M.   Desaulx,  avec  le 
venin  de  la  vipfere.     Archives  General  de 
Medecine,  serie  I,  XIII,  518.  [S.] 
Cayal.     Rage  communiquee  par  la  morsure  d'un 
chien,   essais   de   traitement   par   I'arsenic, 
I'hydrogene  sulphure  et  par  le  venin  de  la 
vipfere,  mort  70  heures  aprfes  I'invasion  des 
premiers    symptomes ;    necropsie.      Revue 
Med.,  Ill,  387,  1831.   [S.] 
Cazentre  (de  Bordeaux).     Notice   sur   les   pro- 
prietes  therapeutiques  de  cedron.     (Journ. 
des  Conn.  Medico-Chirurg.,  1850.) 

States  that  the  cedron  is  an  infallible  remedy 
in  serpent  bites.   [S.] 
Celsus.     De  re  medica;  de  medicamentis,  lib.  Y, 
cap.  XXYII,  §  3,  Lyon,  1856,  in  8. 

Prefers  the  suction  of  poisoned  wounds  to  the 
ligature,  to  cups,  or  to  incisions.   [S.] 
Chabert  (Jean-Louis).   Du  Huaco  et  de  ses  vertus 
medicinales  in  8,  1853. 

Reports  marvellous  effects  of  mikania  guaco  in 

serpent  bites,  even  of  the  most  terrible  kind. 

[S.] 

Charas   (Moise).     Nouvelles  experiences   sur  la 

vipere  ou  I'un  verra  vne  description  exacte 

de  tovtes  ses  parties,  la  sovrce  de  son  venin; 

ses  divers  effets  et  les  remedes  exquis  que  les 

artistes  peuvent  tirer  de  la  vipere  tant  pour 

la  guerison  de  ses  morsures  que  pour  celle  de 


130 


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[S.] 
Chaeas  (Moise).     Svite  des  novvelles  experiences 

•svr  la  vipfere,  in  8,  1112-90.   [S.] 
Chevalliee  (Th.).     Lettre  sur  I'eiEcacite  de  I'ar- 

senic  sur  la  morsure  des  serpents.     Sedillot 

Recueil  period  de  la  Soc.  de  Med.  de  Paris. 

Ill,  409.  [S.] 
Christison  (K).     Treatise  on  Poisons.     1st  Am. 

from  4tli  Edin.  ed.,  Pliila.  1845,  p.  484. 

Clarke  (R.  W.).     Attempt  to  cure  Elephantiasis 

and  Leprosy  by  the  Bite  of  a  Rattlesnake. 

Lancet,  I,  1838  and  18.39,  443. 
Singular  case  resulting  fatally. 
Col  de  Yillars  (Elie).    Cours  de  chirurgie  dicte 

aux  ecoles  de  medecine  de  Paris,  III.  Traite 

des  plaies,  eh.  vi,  p.  Ill,  )146. 

Gives  a  short  description  of  the  symptoms 
and  treatment  of  viper  bites,  insists  on  the 
necessity  of  internal  treatment,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  a  part  of  the  venom  always  enters 
the  Wood.  [S.] 

CoLBATCH  (J.).     Cure   of  the  Bite  of  a   Viper. 

London,  1698,  8vo.   [S.] 
Collenutius  (Pandolph).      Libellus   de  Vipera 

Venet,  1506.  [S.] 
Cooper  (Samuel).     Surgical  Dictionary,  1828,  p. 
214. 

Describes  the  viper,  his  teeth  and  his  bite, 
and  the  mode  of  treatment.  [S.] 

CosTE.  Sur  les  efifets  de  I'eau  de  Luce  dans  la 
morsure  de  la  vipfere.  (Journ.  de  Med., 
XXXIII,  524,  1110.) 

Reports  a  cure  by  the  use  of  fomentations  of 
camphorated  alcohol  and  theriac,  followed  by 
scarifications,  and  the  application  of  eau  de 
Luce  on  the  wound.  [S.] 

Coster.  Prophylactique  du  venin  de  la  vipeve. 
(Clin,  des  Hopit.,  Ill,  No.  43,  1828.)  [S.] 

Cruger  (Daniel).     De  morsu  Viperarum.    (Eph. 

Germ.  Acad.  Nat.  Cur.,  IV,  obs.  LXV,  143, 

1686.) 

Treatment  of  a  case  of  viper  bite  according  to 
ancient  methods,  attributes  great  value  to 
the  sperma  ranaru7n.   [S.  ] 

Davy  (John).  On  Snake  Stones.  Asiatic  Re- 
searches, XIII,  311,  in  4to. 

Gives  analyses  of  the  stones  whose  application 
to  the  wound  is  supposed  in  the  east  to  effect 
a  cure  of  snake-bites. 
Davy  (John).     On  the  poison  of  three  of  the 
poisonous  snakes  of  Ceylon.     Davy's  Phy- 
siological  and   Anatomical    Researches,   I. 
113,  London,  1839;  and  also  the  author's 


account  of  the  interior  of  Ceylon,  London, 

1821. 

A  highly  valuable  and  interesting  detail  of 
experiments  on  venom  poisoning. 
Decerfs  (J.  p.  B.).     Essai  sur  la   morsure  des 

serpents  venimeux  de  la  France.     Thfeses  de 

Paris,  No.  21,  1801. 

Contains  nothing  novel  except  the  opinion 

that  the  viper  bite  is  not  mortal  in  man,  even 

when  no  treatment  has  been  employed.  [S.] 

Delacoux.     Amputation   complete   de  la  jambe 

gauche  produite  par  une  ligature  circulaire 

permanente  de  ce  membre.     Acad,  de  Med. 

Seances  des  30  Juillet  et  20  Aout,  1833. 

Arch.  Gen.  de  Med.,  2e  ser.  II,  581  et  592. 

[S.] 

The  ligature  of  the  limb  was  used  after  a 
viper  bite ;  no  absorption  of  venom  took  place, 
but  the  leg  became  gangrenous,  and  was  finally 
amputated.  A  case  in  which  the  remedy  was 
probably  worse  than  the  disease.  [S.] 
Delpech.     Precis  elementaire  des  maladies  repu- 

tees  chirurgicales,  II,  135  et  136,  in  8vo., 

1815.  [S.] 

Thinks  that  the  viper  bite   is   rarely  dan- 
gerous. [S.] 
Demathiis.    Moyen  de  guerir  I'hydrophobie.    Anc. 

Journ.  de  Med.,  LXI,  365,  Mem.  de  la  Soc. 

de  Med.,  p.  210,  1183. 

This  author  treated  a  dog  supposed  to  be  mad 
by  allowing  him  to  be  bitten  numerous  times 
by  a  viper.  The  dog  died  in  four  hours.  The 
author  supposes  that  if  the  bites  had  been 
fewer  the  dog  would  have  been  cured ;  and 
infers  that  the  venom  is  a  specific  against 
hydrophobic  rage !  [S.] 
Demetire.     Journ.  de  la  Soc.  Gall,  de  Med.  ho- 

moeopathique,  V,  No.  6,  391,  Oct.  1854. 
Gives  the  case  of  a  person  bitten  by  a  viper. 
The  symptoms  seem  to  have  been  of  an  unu- 
sual nature.     The  cure  is  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  venom  from  the  bite  in 
the  thumb  having  been  absorbed  in  homceo- 
patliio  amount,  the  patient  was   thus   pro- 
tected from  the  effects  of  the  remaining  poi- 
son. [S.] 
Delille.     Indication  de  Therapeutique  directe  des 
morsures   les   plus   veneneuses.     Journ.  de 
Physiologic  Exp.  et  Pathol.,  VII,  113. 

Desbois  (de   Rochefort).     Cours   elementaire  de 
Matifere  Medicale,  II,  280,  1189. 

Thinks  that  the  effects  of  the  venom  of  the 
viper  are  due  to  the  animal  being  enraged, 
and  that  it  acts  on  the  nervous  system,  pro- 
ducing a  tendency  to  putrefaction.  Advises 
sudorifics,  ammonia,  and  eau  de  Luce. 

Desmoulins.    Memoires  sur  le  systeme  nerveux  et 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


131 


Pappareil  lacrymal  des  serpents  a  sonnettes, 

de  Trigonocephales  et  de  qnelques  autres 

serpents.     Journ.  de  Phys.,  IV,  264,  1824. 

Treats  of  the  venom  gland  of  serpents,  and 

desires  to  prove,  tliat  it  is  only  an  adjunct  of 

tlie  lachrymal  apparatus.  [S.] 

De  Veset  (Louis)  Xanttjs.    Cases. — Experiments 
■    with  Bibron's  Antidote.    Am.  Jom-n.  of  the 
Med.  Sci.,  No.  LXX,  p.  375,  1858. 

Dezeimeris.     Diet,  de  Medecine,  XXX,  822. 

Contains  nothing  new.     Gives  an  incomplete 

bibliography. 
Drake.    On  the  use  of  ammonia  in  cases  of  serpent 
bites.  West.  Journ.  Med.  &  Phys.  Sci.,  I,  60. 

DuBEBAT.  Mort  spontauee  produite  par  la  mor- 
sure  d'une  seule  vipere.  Bull,  de  Ther.,  X, 
198,  1836. 

Case  of  a  woman  analogous  to  that  reported 
by  Dr.  Lugeal.  [S.] 
Dudley  (Paul).     Account   of  the  Rattlesnake. 
Phil.  Trans,  abrd.,  VII,  409-410,  1722. 
On  the  rattles,  on  fascination,  etc. 
Duces  (Alfred).    Sur  les  Viperes  Aspis  et  Pelias. 
Mem.  de  la  Soc.  de  Biologic,  II,  115.    Gaz. 
Med.,  p.  270,  1850. 

Corrects  certain  errors  in  regard  to  the  French 
vipers ;  gives  details  of  their  habits,  etc.  [S.] 

Duqes  (Alfred).     Note  sur  le  redressement  des 
crochets  dans  les  Thanatophides.     Ann.  des 
Sc.  Nat.,  3e  ser.  XVII,  57,  au  pi.,  1852. 
Gives  a  new  explanation  of  the  mechanism 
concerned  in  elevating  the  fangs.  [S.] 
Dumeril  (Constant)  et  Bibron  (E.).     Erpeto- 
logie  General e,  VI  et  VII,  1844.     At  VII, 
part  II,  1399,  Natural  History  and  Anatomy 
of  Serpents ;  reports  case  of  M.  Dumeril, 
bitten  by  a  viper  in  1851. 
Dumeril  (Auguste).  Note  historique  sur  la  mena- 
gerie des  reptiles   du  museum.     Mem.   du 
Museum,  VII,  273. 

Contains  a  large  amount  of  information  on 
the  habits  of  snakes,  their  food,  change  of 
skin,  etc. 

Dumont.     Vide  Aug.  Dumeril,  p.  276. 

On  the  use  of  cedron  as  an  antidote  and  pro- 
phylactic. 

Duncan.     On  E.  Indian  Snake-Bites,  strychnia  as 

a  remedy  in.     Lancet,  I,  507. 
DusouRD.     Effets  remarquables  de  I'huile  d'olive 
employee  a  I'interieur  et  a  I'esterieur  dans 
les  cas  de  morsure  de  vipere.     Bull,  de  The- 
rapeut,  XXVII,  489,  1849. 

Approves  of  the  internal  use  of  olive  oil  in 
snake-bites.  [S.] 


DuTERTRE  (Jean  Baptiste).  Hist.  Generate  des 
Antilles  habitees  par  les  Fran9ais,  in  4to, 
1667,  1671.  [S.] 
DuvERNOT  (G.  L.).  Caracteres  anatomiques  pour 
distinguer  les  serpents  venimeus.  Ann.  des 
Sci.  Nat,  XXVI,  113,  1830,  XXX,  5, 
1832. 

Gives,  amongst  numerous  other  matters,  de- 
tails of  the  anatomy  of  the  head  of  the  viper ; 
also  accounts  of  experiments  upon  the  poi- 
soning power  of  venom  long  kept  in  alcohol. 

Enaux  et  Chaussier.    Methode  de  traiter  les  mor- 

sures  des  animaus  enrages  et  de  la  vipfere, 

in  12mo.,  p.  101,  1785. 
Advises  cauterization.   [S.] 
Encyclopcedia.    See  article  Serpents,  in  the  British, 

Edinburgh,  and  Rees'  Encyclop. 
Erndte  (Christ.   Henr.).     Iter  Anglicanum  et 

Batanum,  1714,  in  8vo.  [S.] 
Ettmuller  (M.).     Dissertation  de  Morsu  VipersB, 

prffis.  S.  R.  Sulzberger,  Leipzig,  1665, 1685, 

in  4to.  [S.] 

Fodere.     Medecine  Legale,  IV,  11  et  12. 

Cites  many  eases  observed  in  the  hospital  at 

Martinique,  which  died  from  the  bites  of  the 

vipers  of  the  marshes  of  Bos. 

Font  ANA  (Felix).     Rieerche  filosofiche  sopra  il 

veleno  della  vipera,  in  4to,  II,  Lucca,  1767. 

Translated  into  French  in  1781,  4to,  IT,  and 

into   English,    by  Skinner,    in    1787,    II, 

8vo. 

This  latter  is  the  edition  referred  to  in  the 
foregoing  essay. 
FouoHER  (d'Opsonville).    Essai  philosophique  sur 
les   moenrs    de  divers    animaux  etrangers, 
1783,  p.  26,  in  8vo.  [S.] 
Franzius  (Wolfgang).     Historia  animalium  in 
qua  plerumque   animalium   praecipuse   pro- 
prietates  in  gratiam  studiosorum,  theologise 
et  ministrorum  verbi  ad  usum  ii.xovo'Koyixdv 
breviter   accomodantur,  in  18vo,  Amster., 
1665,  pars  IV,  cap.  iii,  de  vipera. 

Dwells  on  the  reproduction  of  the  viper,  on 
the  consequences  of  its  bite,  and  on  the  re- 
medies ;  but  especially  on  the  viper,  theolo- 
gically considered.  [S.] 
Freiskarn   (Paulens).      Dissertatio   de  veneno 

Viperarum,  in  8vo,  1782.  [S.] 
Gaignepain.     Dissertation  sur  les  effets  du  venin 
de   la  vipere.     Thfeses  de  Paris,  No.   24, 
1807. 

Contains  nothing  novel.  [S.] 

Gale  (B.).     Crotalus  bite  cured  by  salt.     Engl. 
Phil.  Trans,  abrd.,  XII,  224,  1765. 


132 


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Galen.  Opera,  XII,  Ed.  Kuhn,  Lipsias,  1826,  pp. 
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Speaks  of  various  venomoiis  serpents,  and  of 
tlie  use  of  viper  flesh  in  elephantiasis.  [S.] 

Gaspard  (B.).  Observations  snr  la  morsure  de  la 
vipere.  Journ.  de  Physiol.  Bxpt.  et  Pathol, 
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Eeports  a  case  of  a  woman  who  was  cured  of 
a  tertian  by  the  bite  of  a  viper. 

Gaspard  (B.).  On  putrefactive  poisoning.  Journ. 
de  Phys.  Exp.  et  Pathol.,  YII,  "7  et  seq. 

Gazette  Salutaire  de  Bouillon,  1181.  Hufeland 
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Of  the  use  of  ammonia  locally  and  interiorly 
as  an  antidote.   [S.] 

Gazette  de  Sante  du  5  Novembre,  1822. 

States  that  dogs  maybe  saved  from  the  effects 

of  viper  bite  by  the  application  of  a  cataplasm 

of  the  fresh  stems  of  the  helleborus  niger. 

[S.] 

Geoffrot  et  Humatjld.    Memoire  dans  lequel  on 

examine  si  I'huile  d'olive  est  un  specifique 

contre  la  morsure  des  viperes.     Mem.  de 

I'Acad.  des  Sci.,  11S1,  p.  183. 

Concludes  that  olive  oil  is  not  a  remedy  in 
these  cases,  or  at  least  that  it  is  a  doubtful 
one.  [S.] 
Gerdy  (P.  N.).     Traite  des   pausements  propre- 
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Case  of  viper  bite  treated  by  ammonia.    Plan 
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Giadorou  (Vincent).     Observations  medico-pra- 
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[S.] 
GiLMAN.     Soda  as  an  antidote  in  the  bite  of  the 
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GiLMAN  (J.).  Action  of  Crotalus  Yenom  on  Plants. 
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1854. 

Contains,  also,  notes  on  other  minor  matters 
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GocKEL  (Eberhr).     De  peste  et  venenis,  in  8vo, 

1669,  cap.  xiv,  p.  m.  59. 
GoESLiNG  (I.  A.)    De  spissitudine  sanguinis  multis 
in  morbis  temere  accnsata.     Gntt,  1Y4Y. 
Affirms  that  the  popular  opinion  as  to  viper 
venom  greatly  thickening  the   blood  is  not 
correct. 

Goodyear  (Aaron).  Death  from  snake-bite  at 
Aleppo.  Engl.  Phil  Trans,  abrd.,  II,  816- 
81T. 


GoupiL.  Sur  la  vipfere  de  Fontainebleau  et  sur  les 
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Gray  (E.  W.).  Observations  on  the  amphibia  of 
Linnaeus,  and  especially  on  the  means  of 
distinguishing  venomous  serpents  from  those 
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large,  LXXIX,  21,  lt89. 

Gray  (J.  B.).  Observations  on  Vipers.  Proc. 
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Gray  (J.  B.).  Venomous  Water  Snakes.  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc,  1831,  p.  135. 

Grevin.     Deux  liures  de  uenins   auxquels  il  est 
completement    discouru    des    Bestes    veni- 
menses,  theriaqnes,  poisons  et  contre  poi- 
sons.   In  4to,  Anvers,  1618,  chap,  x,  p.  72. 
Translations  from  Nicander  in  regard  to  the 
bite  of  the  viper,  etc.  [S.] 

Grimm  (J.  F.  C).  Historia  symptomatum  a  morsu 
Aspidis  productorum  et  medelas.  Nova  Act. 
Acad.  Cur.,  IH,  64,  IT 67.  [S.] 

Grive  (Louis  de  la).  Antiparalfelle  des  Vipferes 
romaines  et  berbes  candiotes.  Lion,  1632, 
p.  77.  [S.] 

Gruere  (J.  B.  Victor).  Des  venins  et  des  ani- 
maux  venimeux.  Theses  de  Paris,  No.  9, 
1854.  [S.] 

Gives  an  analysis  of  the  memoir  of  Prince 
Lucien  Bonaparte. 

GuBLER  (Ad.).  Memoire  sur  I'ictfere  qui  accom- 
pagne  quelquefois  les  eruptions  syphilitiques 
precoces.  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  de  Biol.,  V,  263, 
1853. 

Contains  incidental  remarks  on  the  icterus 
consecutive  to  the  bites  of  serpents. 
Gulden  (Klee).     Bald.  Timoeus  A.  Opera  Libr. 
vii,  cas.  XVIII,  p.  323 ;  libr.  v.  Epist.  XVI, 
p.  m.  824,  in  4to. 

Cases  of  viper  bite.  [S.] 
Gdrisch  (Martin).  Consideratio  physico-medico- 
forensis  de  saliva  humana  qua  ejus  natura  et 
usus  insimulque  morsus  brutorum  et  ho- 
minis,  rabies  et  hydrophobia,  demorsurum 
delecta  et  defensio,  etc.  Lipsise,  1729,  p. 
181,  de  morsu  viperarum.  [S.J 
GuYON.     Le9ons  diverses,  II,  527. 

Describes  the  treatment  of  the  bite  of  the 
viper  by  saliva.  [S.] 
Hafenreferus  (Sam.).    De  cutis  affectibus,  in  8vo. 
Tubingen,  1630,  libr.  iii,  cap.  viii,  p.  461. 
Relates  certain  facts  in  regard  to  the  bite  of 
the  viper.   [S.] 
Hall.     Expts.  on  Crotalus  venom.     Engl.  Phil. 
Trans,  abrd.,  VII,  412,  1727. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


133 


Hammond  (W.  A.).*  On  the  use  of  Bibron's  Anti- 
dote. Am.  Journ.  of  the  Med.  Sei.,  jS'o. 
LXIX,  p.  94,  1858. 

Hannemann  (Jos.  Lud.).  Dissert,  de  viperte 
morsu  Miscell.  iSTat.  Cur.  Dec.  II,  An.  VIII, 
p.  203,  1689.  [S.] 

Hannover,  Niitzliche  Sammlungen,  p.  1365,  1756. 

Advocates  the  use  of  olive  oil  in  viper  bites. 
[S.] 

Hardee  (J.  J.).  De  viperarum  morsu  dissertatio. 
Ept.  Germ.  Acad.  Nat.  Cur.  Dec.  II,  An. 
YI,  p.  229,  1685. 

Relates  experiments  made  to  test  the  trutli  of 
Eedis'  statements.  [S.] 
Harlan  (R.).     Medical  and  Physical  Researches, 
p.  490,  Phila.,  1835. 

Experiments  with  Crotalus  on  animals,  anti- 
dotes, etc. 

Harlan  (R.).  A  case  of  Crotalus  bite  in  man. 
The  North  Am.  Med.  and  Surg.  Journ., 
Phila.,  1831,  XI,  22Y. 

Interesting  case — recovery. 

Harris.  Asclepias  as  an  antidote  in  venom  poison- 
ing. South.  Med.  and  Surg.  Journ.,  N.  S., 
XI,  414. 
Hartmann  (G.  L.).  Precis  sur  I'histoire  naturelle 
des  Vipera  Berus,  Coluber  natrix  et  Anguis 
Pragilis,  lu  a  la  Soc.  d'hist.  nat.  de  Saint- 
Gall.,  1819.     Neue  Alpina,  I,  169. 

Advises  as  treatment  suction,  the  ligature, 
and  cauterization. 

Heeret  (0.  C).  Use  of  Bibron's  Antidote.  Am. 
Journ.  Med.  Sci.,  1859,  No.  LXXVI,  p. 
574. 

Reports  a  case  of  its  use. 

Helmont  (Yan).  Ontus  MedicinsE.  Amsterdam, 
Elzevir,  1548,  in  4,  p.  111. 

Disputes  the  opinion  that  the  virulence  of 
viper  venom  is  due  to  the  animal  being 
angry.  [S.] 

Hempriez.    De  absorptione  et  secretione  venenosa, 

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A  collection  of  wild  absurdities  in  regard  to 
the  analysis  of  venom,  and  to  its  use  in  hy- 
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Herodotus.     Histoire,  Libr.  Ill,  cap.  109. 

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An  interesting  case. 

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East  Indian  snakes — arsenic  as  a  remedy. 

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External  and  internal  use  of  olive  oil  in  snake 

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Journal  de  Med.   pratique  de  Hufeland,  Analyse 

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[S.] 

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Case  of  a  student  bitten  in  the  hand.     Cure. 
[S.] 

Kalm.  Travels  in  America  (Hist.  Caudisonte). 
1753,  II,  490. 


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Gives  his  own  experiments,  and  refutes  the 
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[S.] 

RiDOLFi  (Camillo).  Sur  I'inutilite  de  la  ligature 
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RiVERius.     Observationes,  Cent.  IV,  No.  96. 

Proposes  the  use  of  garlic  internally  and  ex- 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


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Reports  very  severe  cases  treated  successfully 
by  ammonia,  mercurial   frictions,  scarifica- 
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States  tliat  it  is  more  dangerous  than  the  gray 

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Lyon,  166T.  [S.] 
RoNEAtf  (J.  B.).     Observations  sur  la  morsure  de 
la  Yipere.    Theses  de  Paris,  No.  121,  1828. 
Reports  fatal  cases,  and  others  of  great  seve- 
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Rose  (De).     Remede  contre  la  morsure  de  la  Yi- 
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562,  1846. 

States  that  he  used  with  success  a  cataplasm 
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Rousseau  (Emmanuel).     Des  serpents  venimeux 

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Gaz.  de  Sante  a  I'usage  des  gens  du  monde. 

Three  cases  of  viper  bite.  [S.] 

Roux.     Hist,  de  la  Soc.  Roy.  de  Med.,  ad.  1782 

et  '83,  II,  212,  18—. 

Used  the  ligature,  oil  "septiques"  (sic),  and 
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RuDOLPHi  (respondente  Saiffert).  Dissertatio  sis- 
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Rupz.  Reclierches  sur  les  empoisonnements  pra- 
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Sa-bal  (A.  M.).  Experiments  with  Bibron's  anti- 
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1858  ;  Amer.  Journal  of  the  Med.  Sci.,  Oct. 
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Sage.  Experiences  propre  ii  faire  connaitre  que 
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dans  les  asphyxies,  avec  des  remarques  sur 
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Salisbury  (J.  H.).  Action  of  venom  on  plants. 
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Sauvages  (Fr.  Boissier).  De  venenatis  Galliaa 
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Sava.  Introduction  d'une  Yipfere  dans  I'estomac 
18 


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Savary.     Lettres  sur  I'Egypte,  p.  62,  1788-89. 

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ScHLEGEL.     Materiallen  fiir  die  Stahtarzneikunde, 

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Treatment  of  snake-bite  by  the  internal  and 
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ScHUCHMANN  (CHRISTIAN).     Sur  les  effets  d'une 

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Cur.,  Dec.  11,  Ann.  YII,  Obs.  140,  1688; 

Collect.  Acad.  YII,  661,  1766. 

Cure  by  the  use  of  theriac  and  mithridate 
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ScHULZE  (J.   H.).     Dissertatio   de   viperarum   in 

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A  case  treated  at  first  by  bleeding,  without 
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ScRiBONius  (Largus),  (in  Matthiale  Commen- 
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Semmedus  (JoH.  CvR.).  Pvgillvs  rervm  Indica- 
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alliisqve  orbis  terrarum  partibvs  allatorvm, 
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Severing  (Marc.  Aurel.).     Yipera  Pithya  seu 
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of  the  venom  of  other  serpents,  p.  431. 


138 


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Xantxjs.     See  De  Vesey. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Abdomen,  post-mortem  aj^pearances  of,  107. 
Absorption  of  venom,  16. 
Absorption  of  venom  by  the  lungs,  tt. 
Abstinence  of  snakes  in  captivity,  3. 
Acetic  acid,  effect  of,  on  venom,  33. 
.  Action  of  venom  on  warm-blooded  animals,  64. 
Action  of  venom  on  tissues  and  fluids,  T6. 
Acute  poisoning,  rabbit,  67. 
Acute  poisoning  by  venom,  state  of  blood  in,  89. 
Acute  poisoning  of  frogs  by  venom,  55. 
Acute  poisoning  of  pigeons,  64. 
Alcohol  as  a  constitutional  remedy  in  Rattlesnake 

bite,  114. 
Alcohol  as  a  local  treatment,  112. 
Alcohol  does  not  injure  venom,  45. 
Alcohol,  effect  of,  on  venom,  34. 
Alcohol,  warm,  inhalation  of,  116. 
Albuminoid  compounds  in  venom,  37. 
Alexander  on  the  ligature,    110,  111, 
Alkalies,  effect  of,  on  venom,  34. 
Ammonia  as  local  treatment,  112. 
Ammonia  as  an  antidote,  113. 
Amputation  as  local  treatment,  109. 
Analogy   between   Crotalus   poisoning   and   other 

maladies,  97. 
Analysis  of  venom,  35. 
Antidotes,  108,  113. 
Antidote,  Bibron's,  113. 
Antidotes,  classification  of,  113. 
Antidotes,  local,  109. 
Antidotes,  observations  upon,  112. 
Arsenic  as  an  antidote,  113. 
Atchison  (Dr.),  case  of  Rattlesnake  bite,  100. 

B. 

Barton  (Dr.  B.  S.)  on  fascination,  5. 
Bernard  (Claude),  criticism  on  Fontana,  61. 
Bibliography — Appendix  B,  127. 
Bibron's  antidote,  history  of,  113. 
Bichloride  of  mercury,  effect  of,  on  venom,  34. 


Bite  of  the  Rattlesnake,  physiological  mechanism 
of,  20. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  failure  of,  from  miscalculation 
of  the  distance,  25. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  failure  of,  from  want  of  force 
in  the  blow,  25. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  failure  of,  from  want  of  com- 
plete erection  of  the  fangs,  25. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  failure  of,  owing  to  sudden 
withdrawal  of  the  fang,  25. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  failure  of,  owing  to  escape  of 
venom  between  the  fang  and  the  extremity  of 
the  duct,  22,  25. 

Blindness,  partial,  of  snake,  during  shedding  of 
skin,  4. 

Blood,  conclusions  as  to  changes  in,  94. 

Blood,  crystallization  of,  after  venom  poisoning,  92. 

Blood,  effect  of  venom  on,  89. 

Blood,  globules  of,  observations  on,  in  acute  and 
chronic  poisoning,  91. 

Blood  and  tissues,  altered  relations  between,  during 
venom  poisoning,  94. 

Blood,  state  of,  in  man  after  death  by  Rattlesnake- 
bite,  106. 

Boiled  venom  active,  44. 

Bonaparte  (Prince  Lucien),  analysis  of  viper  ve- 
nom, 35. 

Bone,  ecto-pterygoid,  7. 

Bone,  lachrymal,  7. 

Bone,  maxillary,  articulations  of,  8. 

Bone,  palatal,  7. 

Bone,  superior  maxillary,  6. 

Bones  of  heads  of  seri>ents,  arrangement  of,  to 
permit  of  swallowing  large  animals,  6. 

Brainard  (Prof.  David),  action  of  venom  on  blood, 
91. 

Brainard  (Prof.  David),  use  of  iodine  as  an  anti- 
dote, 46. 

Brainard  (Prof.  David),  iodine  as  a  local  antidote, 
HI. 

Brainard  (Prof.  David),  on  alcohol  as  aii  antidote, 
115,  116. 


142 


INDEX. 


Braiuard  (Prof.  David),  taste  of  venom,  31. 
Brickell,  acid  reaction  of  Rattlesnake  venom,  31. 
Burnett  ( W.  J,)  on  blood-globules  in  venom  poison- 
ing, 92. 
Burnett  (W.  J.)  on  the  fang,  1 6. 
Burnett  (W.  J.),  ingestion  of  venom,  T6. 

C. 

Calorification,  action  of  venom  on,  88. 

Capacity  of  gland  and  ducts,  relation  of,  to  length 

and  weight  of  snake,  29. 
Capillary  circulation  unaffected  by  venom,  86. 
Capsule  of  venom  gland,  11. 
Caudisona,  119. 
Caudisona  adamantea,  121. 
Caudisona  atros,  121. 
Caudisona  cerastes,  124. 
Caudisona  confluenta,  122. 
Caudisona  durissa,  120. 
Caudisona  horrida,  122,  123- 
Caudisona  loeflingii,  120. 
Caudisona  Le  Contei,  121. 
Caudisona  lepida,  124. 
Caudisona  lucifer,  121. 
Caudisona  lugubris,  122. 
Caudisona  molossus,  124. 
Caudisona  terrifica,  120. 
Caudisona  tigris,  122. 
Caustics  as  local  treatment,  111. 
Cells  of  sphincter,  15. 
Celsus,  ingestion  of  venom  (note),  16. 
Cervical  angular  muscle,  9. 
Chemical  agents,  influence  of,  on  activity  of  venom, 

45. 
Chlorine  water,  action  of,  on  venom,  34. 
Chlorohydric  acid,  effect  of,  on  venom,  33. 
Christison  (Prof.),  dried  Cobra  venom,  active,  59. 
Chronic  poisoning  in  pigeons,  65. 
Chronic  poisoning  in  the  rabbit,  68. 
Chronic  poisoning  by  venom,  state  of  blood  in,  89. 
Chronic  venom  poisoning,  94. 
Ciliary  movement  unaltered  by  venom,  86. 
Cloak  of  the  fang,  use  of  (note),  22, 
Closure  of  the  venom  duct  when  not  in  use,  24. 
Coagulation  of  venom,  temperature  of,  33. 
Cobra  can  destroy  Cobra,  60. 
Color  of  venom,  29. 

Coil,  use  of  portion  of,  after  striking,  22. 
Coolidge  (Dr.),  case,  100. 
Cope,  E.  D.,  genera  and  species,  119-126. 
Costo-mandibular  muscles,  9. 
Crotaline,  characters  of,  36. 
Crotaliue,  preparation  of,  36. 
Crotalophorus,  used  by  Prof.  Brainard,  112. 


Crotalus,  124. 

Crotalus  durissus  (see   Caudisona,  Appendix  A), 

122. 
Crotalus  Edwardsii,  125. 
Crotalus,  effect  of  venom  on,  60. 
Crotalus,  habits  of,  in  captivity,  3. 
Crotalus  miliarias,  124. 
Crotalus  tergeminus,  125. 
Cups,  use  of,  in  treatment,  110. 
Curve  of  venom  duct,  use  of,  24. 

D. 

Death,  causation  of,  in  acute  and  chronic  poisoning, 
95. 

Death,  cause  of,  in  acute  cases,  96. 

Death,  cause  of,  in  chronic  cases,  96. 

Death,  mode  of,  in  human  cases  of  Crotalus  bite, 
105. 

De  Blainville,  venom  gland  analogous  to  parotid, 
37. 

Decomposition  of  venom,  32. 

De  Yesey — see  Xantus,  case,  100. 

Digastricus  muscle,  9. 

Discharges,  state  of,  in  human  cases  of  venom  poi- 
soning, 105. 

Dogs,  action  of  Crotalus  venom  on,  69. 

Dogs,  cases  of  poisoning  of,  by  venom,  69 — 72. 

Dogs,  fatal  cases  of  venom  poisoning  of,  72 — 75. 

Dried  venom,  crystals  from,  32. 

Dried  venom,  poisoning  by,  59. 

Duct  of  venom  gland,  curve  of,  15. 

Duct,  relations  of,  to  sup.  maxillary  bone,  24. 

Duct,  terminal  papilla  of,  18. 

Duration  of  cases  of  venom  poisoning  in  man,  105. 

Duvernoy,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 

E. 

Ecchymoses  in  secondary  or  chronic  poisoning,  94. 

Echidnine,  36. 

Ether,  inhalation  of,  116. 

Excision  as  local  treatment,  109. 

Expression  of  snake  when  striking,  21. 

External  pterygoid  muscle,  action  of,  8. 

F. 

Fallacies  in  the  use  of  antidotes,  25. 

Fangs,  act  of  elevation  of,  21. 

Fang,  depression  of  after  biting,  22. 

Fang,  development  of,  16. 

Fang,  divergence  of,  during  act  of  biting,  23. 

Fang,  position  and  action  of,  in  biting,  22. 

Fang,  size  of,  16. 


INDEX. 


143 


Fang,  structure  of,  15. 

Fangs,  periodical  fall  of,  17. 

Fangs,  relation  of  number  of,  used  in  biting,  to 
study  of  antidotes,  23. 

Fangs  reserve,  succession  of,  18. 

Fangs,  use  of  one  or  both,  23. 

Fascination,  4. 

Fascination,  author's  observations  on,  5. 

Fatal  venom  poisoning  in  dogs,  72 — 75. 

Fermentation,  not  checked  by  venom,  49. 

Fibrin,  loss  of  its  coagulating  power  in  chronic 
poisoning,  89. 

Fibrin,  rate  of  disappearance  of  in  venom  poison- 
ing, 92. 

Fontana,  amount  of  venom  ejected,  29. 

Fontana,  action  of  venom  on  blood,  91. 

Fontana,  action  of  venom  on  frogs,  54. 

Fontana,  action  of  viper  venom  on  viper,  61 

Fontana,  color  of  viper  venom,  30. 

Fontana,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 

Fontana  on  reaction  of  viper  venom,  31. 

Fontana,  taste  of  viper  venom,  30. 

Forcible  feeding  of  snakes,  3. 

Frogs,  action  of  venom  on,  55. 

Frogs,  chronic  poisoning  of,  57. 

Frozen  venom,  active,  43. 

G. 

Gaspard  on  analogy  between  venom  malady  and 

other  diseases,  97. 
Germination  of  seeds  in  venom,  52. 
Gilman  (B.  J.),  action  of  venom  on  plants,  47. 
Guinea-pig,  blood   crystals  from,  after  death   by 

venom,  92. 

H. 

Hammond  (W.  A.),  case  of  Rattlesnake  bite,  100. 
Hammond  (W.   A.)    on  Bibron's   antidote,   113, 

114. 
Harlan  (R.),  acid  reaction  of  Rattlesnake  venom, 

31. 
Harlan  (R.),  case  of  Rattlesnake  bite,  100. 
Harlan,  ingestion  of  venom,  76. 
Head,  lesions  of,  in  man,  106. 
Heart,  effect  of  venom  on,  80. 
Heart  force  lessened  by  venom,  83,  84. 
Hemorrhage  from  bite  in  man,  101. 
Hissing  sound  made  by  serpents,  20. 
Holbrook  (Prof)  on  use  of  intermittent  ligature, 

110. 
Home  (SirE.),  case,  100. 
Home  (Sir  E.),  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 
Horner  (W.  E.),  case,"  100. 


I. 

Ingestion  of  venom,  76. 

Inhalation  in  Rattlesnake  bite,  116. 

Intermittent  ligature,  110. 

Intoxication,  how  far  useful  in  venom  poisoning 

116. 
Iodine  as  local  treatment,  111. 


J. 

James  on  reaction  of  viper  venom,  31. 

Jaundice  of  cases  of  snake-bites,  97. 

Jeter,  capacity  of  venom  duct  in  Rattlesnake,  29. 

Jeter,  color  of  Rattlesnake  venom,  30. 

Jeter,  ingestion  of  venom,  76. 

Jeter  on  ligature,  110. 

Jeter,  taste  of  venom,  31. 

Johnston,  Prof  Christopher  (note),  22. 

Johnston  (Prof.  Christopher)  on  the  fang,  16. 

Jussieu  on  reaction  of  viper  venom,  31. 


Lesions  in  dogs,  72 — 75. 

Lesions  in  fatal  cases  of  Rattlesnake  bite  in  man, 
106. 

Lesions  in  pigeons,  67. 

Lesions  in  rabbits,  table  of,  69. 

Ligament  check,  of  lachrymal  and  superior  maxil- 
lary joint,  7. 

Ligature  modifies  local  symptoms,  102. 

Ligatures,  110. 

Ligatures,  intermittent,  110. 

Local  consequences  in  man,  10.3. 

Local  symptoms,  103. 

Local  symptoms  absent  when  venom  has  been  pre- 
viously mixed  with  iodine  or  tannic  acid,  46. 

Local  symptoms  modified  by  remedies,  102. 

Local  treatment,  applications  to  wounds,  112. 

Loss  of  skin,  description  of,  4. 

Loss  of  skin,  relations  of,  to  supply  of  water,  4. 


M. 


Magendie   on   resemblance   of   venom   malady   to 

putrefactive  poisoning,  97. 
Man,  Crotalus  poisoning  in,  98. 
Man,  Crotalus  poisoning  in,  table  of  16  cases,  100. 
Mangili,  dried  venom,  59. 
Mangili  on  absorption  of  venom,  76. 
Manipulations  (note),  27. 
Mayrant  (W.),  two  cases,  100. 
Mead,  action  of  venom  on  blood,  91. 


144 


INDEX. 


Mead  on  reaction  of  viper  venom,  31. 

Mead,  taste  of  venom  of  viper,  30. 

Mind,  state  of,  in  venom  poisoning  in  man,  105. 

Miteliill  (S.  L.)  on  analogy  between  yellow  fever 
and  venom  poisoning,  97. 

Moore  (Dr.),  case,  100. 

Motions  of  intestines  unaltered  by  venom  poison- 
ing, 86. 

Mucous  membrane  of  month  of  Rattlesnake,  reac- 
tion of,  31. 

Muscles,  effect  of  venom  on,  "78. 

Muscles,  irritability  of  under  venom  poisoning,  79. 

Muscles,  ultimate  effect  of  venom  on,  79. 

Myology  of  venom  apparatus,  8. 

N. 

Nerves,  duration  of  irritability  in,  during  effect  of 

venom  on,  86. 
Nerves,  motor,  action  of  venom  on,  87. 
Nerves,  sensory,  action  of  venom  on,  87. 
Nervous  system,  action  of  venom  on,  86. 
Nitric  acid,  effect  of,  on  venom,  33. 

O. 

Odor  of  Rattlesnakes,  5. 

Ogier  (Dr.),  use  of  ligature  as  local  means,  110. 

Olive  oil  as  an  antidote,  113. 

Olive  oil  as  local  treatment,  112. 

Orfila,  criticism  on  Fontana,  59. 

Owen  (R.),  description  of  fang,  15. 


P. 


Pain  of  bite,  cause  of,  101. 

Paul  (Prince,  of  Wurtemburg),  on  Bibrou's  anti- 
dote, 113,  114. 

Phillips  (A.  B.),  case,  100. 

Pig  bitten  by  Rattlesnake,  death  (note),  78. 

Pigeons,  action  of  venom  on,  64. 

Pigeons,  acute  poisoning  of,  64. 

Pigeons,  chronic  poisoning  of,  65. 

Pihorel  (Dr.),  case,  100. 

Plants,  action  of  venom  on,  50. 

Position  of  snake  before  striking,  20. 

Post  (Dr.),  case,  100. 

Pterygoideus  externus  muscle,  function  of,  during 
the  act  of  biting,  22. 

R. 

Rabbit  acutely  poisoned,  67. 
Pianby,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 


Rattlesnakes,  genera  and  species  of  (Appendi.x  A), 

119—126. 
Reaction  of  venom,  31. 
Receptacle  of  venom,  12. 
Recoveries,  mode  of,  in  man,  106. 
Redi,  ingestion  of  venom,  76. 
Redi,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 
Reynoso,  criticism  on  Brainard's  experiments.  111. 
Rigor  mortis  after  death  by  venom,  79. 
Rotiferfe  in  venom,  53. 
Russell,  color  of  venom  of  Cobra,  30. 
Russell,  experiments  on  power  of  Cobra  to  kill  itself 

and  other  serpents. 
Russell  on  Tanjore  pill,  113. 


S. 


Salisbury  (J.  H.),  action  of  venom  on  plants,  48. 

Saliva  and  venom  compared,  42. 

Scarifications  as  local  treatment,  109. 

Secondary  poisoning  in  frogs,  57. 

Sex  of  those  bitten,  101. 

Smith,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 

Solubility  of  venom,  33. 

Soubeiran,  anterior  tendinous    insertion   of    ant. 

temporal  muscle  in  vipers,  12. 
Soubeiran,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 
Specific  gravity  of  venom,  30. 
Spheno-palatine  muscle,  action  of,  8. 
Spheno-palatine  muscle,  function  of,  during  the  act 

of  biting,  22. 
Spheno-pterygoid  muscle,  action  of,  8. 
Sphincter  of  duct  of  venom  gland,  14. 
Stimulants,  use  of,  in  venom  poisoning,  114. 
Striking,  mode  of,  action  of  muscles  in,  21. 
Suction,  use  of,  in  treatment,  110. 
Sulphate  of  magnesia,  effect  of,  on  venom,  34. 
Sulphate  of  soda,  effect  of,  on  venom,  34. 
Sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  absence  of,  in  venom, 

34. 
Sulphuric  acid,  effect  of,  on  venom,  33. 
Symptoms,  constitutional,  in  man,  104. 
Symptoms,  local,  in  man,  101. 
Symptoms  of  venom  poisoning  in  rabbits,  table  of, 


T. 

Tanjore  pill,  composition  of,  113. 

Tannic  acid,  effect  of,  on  venom,  33. 

Taste  of  venom,  30. 

Temperatures,    effect    of    various,    on    activity   of 

venom,  43. 
Temporal  muscles,  9. 


INDEX. 


145 


Temporal  muscles,  action  of,  10. 

Temporal  muscles,  anterior,  compression  of  venom 

gland  by,  during  the  bite,  22. 
Tenacity  of  life  in  Rattlesnakes  (note),  24. 
Thorax,  post-mortem  appearances  of,  107. 
Tissue  of  venom  gland,  12. 
■  Toxicology  of  venom  of  Crotalus,  47. 
Treatment,  local,  division  of,  109. 
Trowbridge  (J.),  case,  100. 
Twitching  of  muscles  about  wound,  not  described 

in  human  cases,  104. 
Tyson,  mechanism  of  the  bite,  20. 


Venom,  action  of,  on  animal  life,  52. 

Venom,  action  of,  on  arterial  pressure  in  animals 

bitten  by  Rattlesnakes,  83. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  blood-globules,  91. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  capillaries,  86. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  cilia,  86. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  calorifacient  function,  88. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  frogs,  54. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  intestinal  motions,  86. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  man,  98. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  nerve  trunks,  86. 
Venom,  action  of,  on  plants,  47. 
Venom,  albuminous  nature  of,  34. 
Venom  altered  so  as  to  lose  virulence,  49. 
Venom,  amount  of,  iu  the  ducts,  27. 
Venom  apparatus,  anatomy  of,  6. 
Venom,  chemistry  of,  33. 
Venom,  comparison  of,  to  saliva,  42. 
Venom,  comparative  power  of,  to  injure  frogs  and 

Rattlesnakes,  63. 
Venom,  decomposition  of,  32. 
Venom,  direct  action  of,  on  blood,  table  of,  90. 
Venom  does  not  convert  starch  into  sugar,  38. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  blood,  89. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  fibrin  of  blood,  92. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  heart  of  frog,  80. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  muscles,  78,  79. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  pigeons,  64. 
Venom,  effect  of,  on  rabbit's  heart,  81. 
Venom  gland,  10. 

Venom  gland,  anatomical  relations  of,  10. 
Venom  gland,  are  its  tissue  or  infusions  poisonous  ? 

39. 
Venom  gland,  capsule  of,  11. 


Venom  gland,  form  of,  10. 

Venom  gland,  relations  of,  to  fascia  of  external 

pterygoid  muscle,  12. 
Venom  gland,  size  and  weight  of,  10. 
Venom  gland,  structure  of,  12. 
Venom  gland,  suspensory  ligament  of,  11. 
Venom,  ingestion  of,  76. 

Venom  of  Rattlesnake,  effect  of  reagents  on,  33. 
Venom  of  Rattlesnake,  proximate  constituents  of, 

37. 
Venom  of  Rattlesnake  soluble  in  water,  33. 
Venom  of  viper,  analysis  of,  35. 
Venom,  physical  characters  of,  30. 
Venom,  physical  and  chemical  characters  of,  27. 
Venom,  power  with  which  it  is  ejected,  24. 
Venom,  reaction  of,  31. 
Venom,  receptacle  of,  within  the  gland,  12. 
Venom,  sediment  from,  32. 
Venom,  sp.  gr.  of,  30. 
Venom,  taste  of,  30. 

Venom  uninjured  by  acids  and  alkalies,  46. 
Vertebro-raaudibular  muscles,  9. 
Vibriones  in  venom,  53. 
Virulency  of  snakes  after  shedding  the  skin,  4. 

W. 

Water  as  local  treatment,  112. 

Withmire  (Dr.),  case,  100. 

Woodhouse  (Dr.),  case,  100. 

Woodhouse  (Dr.),  swelling   of  lymphatic  vessels 

and  glands,  103. 
Wound,  bleeding  from,  78. 
Wound  made  by  fang,  77. 
Wound,  situation  of,  in  man,  101. 
Wound,  swelling  about,  cause  of,  78. 
Wound,  twitching  about,  79. 
Wound,  veins  near,  78. 
Wyman  (Prof.  J.)  (note),  22. 
Wyman  (Prof.  J.),  on  relation  of  duct  to  fang,  19. 

X. 

Xantus  (J.),  on  Bibron's  antidote,  113. 
Xantus  (J.) — see  De  Vesey's  case,  100. 


Yellow  fever,  likeness  of,  to  venom  malady,  97. 


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